THERURAL 
SCIENCE 
SERIES 

BY  LH- BAILEY 


lain  Lib.  AGRiC,  D£PL 


FRUIT-GROWING  IN  ARID  REGIONS 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK  •    BOSTON  •   CHICAGO 
SAN   FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  LIMITED 

LONDON   '    BOMBAY   •    CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  pO.  OF  CANADA,  LTD. 

TORONTO 


FRUIT-GROWING 

IN 

ARID  REGIONS 

AN  ACCOUNT  OF  APPROVED  FRUIT-GROWING  PRACTICES 
IN  THE  INTER-MOUNTAIN  COUNTRY  OF   THE   WEST- 
ERN UNITED  STATES,  COMPRISING  THE  STATES  OF 
COLORADO,  MONTANA,  IDAHO,  UTAH,  NEVADA, 
AND   IN    NORTHERN    ARIZONA   AND    NEW 
MEXICO,    WITH  APPLICATIONS  TO 
ADJACENT   REGIONS 


BY 

WENDELL   PADDOCK 

PROFESSOR    OF    HORTICULTURE    IN    THE    COLORADO    AGRICULTURAL 
COLLEGE    AND    EXPERIMENT    STATION 

AND 

ORVILLE    B.    WHIPPLE 

FIELD   HORTICULTURIST    IN    THE    COLORADO    AGRICULTURAL 
COLLEGE    AND  EXPERIMENT   STATION 


gorfc 

THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY 
1914 

All  rights  reserved 


COPYRIGHT,  1910, 
BY  THE   MACMILLAN   COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.     Published  May,  1910      Reprinted 
October,  1911  ;  October,  1912;  August,  1913;  June,  1914. 


Nortocoft 

J.  S.  Gushing  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith  Co, 
Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 

THIS  volume  is  the  outgrowth  of  over  eight  years'  ex- 
perience in  inter-mountain  horticulture.  From  the  nature 
of  our  work,  much  time  has  been  spent  in  orchards  in  the 
various  districts,  and  Mr.  Whipple,  in  the  capacity  of 
Field  Agent  in  Horticulture,  has  been  stationed  for  the 
past  three  years  at  Grand  Junction,  Colorado,  the  center 
of  one  of  the  most  famous  fruit  sections  in  the  Union. 
During  this  time  the  writers  have  become  acquainted  with 
the  many  problems  that  are  of  interest  to  the  experienced 
orchardist  and  most  perplexing  to  the  novice,  through  per- 
sonal contact  with  fruit-growers  and  at  horticultural 
short-courses  as  well  as  through  correspondence.  Arid 
horticulture  is  very  different  in  many  respects  from  that 
of  the  humid  states,  and  a  fruit-grower  from  the  East  has 
much  to  learn.  But  the  majority  of  our  fruit-growers  had 
no  experience  in  horticulture  before  coming  West,  and 
many  of  them  nad  little  or  no  knowledge  of  country  life. 
Such  persons  have  everything  to  learn,  and  it  is  to  them 
that  this  volume  is  especially  addressed.  Horticulture 
has  only  begun  to  be  developed  in  the  semi-arid  West; 
consequently  new  settlers  will  continue  to  come  to  us  for 
many  years,  and  instruction  in  the  elements  of  the  art  of 
horticulture  will  continue  to  be  in  demand. 


342854 


vi  Preface 

The  observing  traveler  is  at  once  impressed  with  the 
intelligence  of  the  people  who  are  engaging  in  fruit-grow- 
ing in  the  inter-mountain  country.  We  find  here  people 
from  all  walks  of  life,  attracted  by  the  advantages  of 
climate  or  the  possibilities  of  money-making  in  a  pleasant 
and  healthful  occupation.  One  may  meet  in  a  day's  ride 
among  the  orchards,  former  doctors,  lawyers,  teachers, 
preachers,  merchants,  farmers,  and  young  men  recently 
graduated  from  an  eastern  university  or  college.  It  is  such 
persons  that  create  a  demand  for  horticultural  information, 
and  their  letters  to  officers  of  the  Experiment  Stations, 
while  direct  and  intelligent,  often  would  require  one  to 
write  a  book  in  order  to  supply  the  information.  We 
have  endeavored  to  meet  this  demand  in  the  following 
pages. 

The  inter-mountain  states  include  a  vast  territory, 
where  a  great  number  of  different  conditions  exists,  and 
inexperienced  men  are  planting  orchards  in  all  parts  of 
this  region  at  the  rate  of  many  hundred  acres  a  year.  It  is 
impossible  to  include  everything  of  interest  to  the  orchard- 
ist  in  a  volume  of  this  size;  however,  we  hope  to  supply 
working  information  that  will  apply  to  the  entire  region; 
and  in  a  general  way  this  book  should  be  of  value  wherever 
fruit  is  grown  under  irrigation. 

Several  of  the  chapters  have  formed  the  basis  of  experi- 
ment station  bulletins,  and  the  substance  of  most  of  them 
has  been  given  many  times  at  horticultural  short-courses. 
The  articles  on  Insects  and  Insecticides  have  been  adapted 
from  the  numerous  writings  of  Professor  C.  P.  Gillette, 
Entomologist  of  the  Colorado  Experiment  Station.  The 
discussion  on  Live-stock  on  the  Fruit-farm  was  prepared 


Preface  vii 

by  Professor  H.  M.  Cottrell,  Superintendent  of  Farmers' 
Institutes  in  Colorado. 

We  are  also  indebted  to  other  members  of  the  College 
Faculty,  for  without  their  help  and  advice  this  work  could 

scarcely  have  been  completed. 

WENDELL  PADDOCK. 
O.  B.   WHIPPLE. 
AGRICULTURAL  COLLEGE, 
FORT  COLLINS,  COLORADO. 
June  15,  1909. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  I 

PAGES 

HISTORY  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  FRUIT  INDUSTRY       .        .  1-12 

Daniel  Webster's  Speech 

The  Mormons 5 

Colorado's  Horticultural  History 6 

CHAPTER  II 

LOCATION,  EXPOSURE,  SOILS,  AND  WINDBREAKS         .        .          13-27 

Altitude  and  Fruit-growing 

Eastern  Slope  Fruit  Belt 13 

Canon  Breezes  and  Frost 15 

Orchard  Soils 16 

Marl 19 

Cement  Soils 20 

Sinking  Land 20 

Seepage  ....•••••••  21 

Alkali  vs.  Free  Water 22 

Soil  Surveys 23 

Windbreaks 24 

CHAPTER   HI 

PREPARATION  OF  LAND  FOR  PLANTING    .... 

Variation  in  Soils 28 

Land  should  be  well  Prepared 29 

Settling  and  Leveling 29 

Plowing          .         .        . .32 

Sitbsoiling 33 

ix 


x  Contents 

CHAPTER  IV 

PAGES 

PLANNING  AND  PLANTING  THE  ORCHARD      ....          35-52 

Varieties         ..........  37 

Selection  of  Trees 37 

Care  of  Nursery  Stock 40 

Fillers 46 

Interplanting  of  Varieties 47 

When  to  Plant 48 

Methods  of  Planting 49 

CHAPTER  V 

THE  ORCHARD  PLANT 53-65 

Spread  and  Growth  of  Roots 63 

Root  Hairs 64 

Strength  of  Soil  Solution 65 

The  Stem 66 

Cambium        ..........  69 

Leaves 61 

CHAPTER  VI 

BUDS 66-79 

Branch-buds 66 

Fruit-spurs     .         .                 .                 .        .        •        .        .  70 

Fruit-buds  of  Apple  and  Pear 71 

The  Buds  of  Stone-fruits 73 

CHAPTER  VII 

PRUNING  YOUNG  TREES        .  80-110 

Handling  Young  Trees 80 

Low-headed  Trees  Desirable 84 

Form  of  Tree 86 

Shaping  the  Newly  Planted  Tree 88 

Yearling  Trees  are  Best 90 

Second-year  Pruning     .         . 92 


Contents  xi 

PAGES 

Third-year  Pruning 93 

Pruning  Bearing  Trees 99 

Pruning  Young  Peach  Trees 102 

Training  the  Peach  Tree 104 

CHAPTER  Vin 

PRUNING  MATURE  TREES 111-146 

The  Justification  of  Pruning Ill 

Physiology  of  Pruning 112 

Summer  Pruning 112 

The  Healing  of  Wounds 113 

System  of  Pruning  influenced  by  Bearing  Habit    .        .        .113 

Pruning  Tools 115 

Pruning  the  Apple 117 

Pruning  the  Apricot 123 

Pruning  the  Cherry 125 

Pruning  the  Peach 127 

Pruning  the  Pear 133 

Pruning  the  Quince 138 

Pruning  the  Plum 139 

Thinning  Fruit 141 

CHAPTER  IX 

TOP-WORKING  FRUIT  TREES 147-172 

Top-working  Desirable 147 

Limits  of  Grafting 148 

Top-working  Old  Trees 150 

Cleft-grafting 154 

Kerf-grafting 155 

Bark-grafting          ..         .        .        .         .        .        .        .155 

Terminal-grafting 155 

Season  for  Grafting 158 

Cion  Wood 160 

Growing  the  Top 162 

Top-working  Young  Trees 165 


xii  Contents 

CHAPTER  X 

PAGES 

THE  PROPAGATION  OF  ORCHARD  TREES       ....      173-178 
Apple  Seedlings      .........     17o 

Dwarf  Apples 174 

Northern  Spy  Roots  and  Woolly  Aphis          .        .         .        .174 

How  Root  Grafts  are  Made 175 

Budding 175 

Dwarf  Pears ....     176 

Budding  Peach  Trees     .........     177 

The  Apricot 178 

The  Plums 178 

The  Cherries .        .        .178 

CHAPTER   XI 

THE  TILLAGE  or  ORCHARDS         .  ...      179-183 

Clean  Culture  can  be  Overdone      ......     179 

The  Benefits  of  Tillage 181 

Inter-mountain  Practice          .......     182 

Irrigation  and  Clean  Cultivation  soon  compacts  Soil     .         .     183 
Importance  of  Organic  Matter        .......     183 

CHAPTER   XII 

FERTILIZERS  AND  SHADE-CROPS    .  184-202 

Soil  Fertility  not  Inexhaustible 184 

Elements  of  Plant-food 187 

Fertilizer  Experiment  with  Potatoes      .....  189 

Benefits  of  Green  Manures    .......  190 

Cover-crops    .                 190 

Shade-crops 190 

Decaying  Vegetable  Matter    .......  191 

Moisture         ..........  191 

Puddling         .                                            192 

Earthworms  .                 192 

Porous  Soils   .                  .                           192 

Freezing  Dry          „ .  193 


Contents  xiii 

PAGES 

The  Decay  of  Green  Manures 194 

Humus .196 

Leguminous  Crops 197 

Soil  Inoculation      . 198 

Kinds  of  Crops  to  use  for  Shade-crops 199 

When  to  Plant  199 


CHAPTER   XIII 

IRRIGATION  IN  ORCHARDS 203-211 

No  Definite  Rule  can  be  Given 203 

Irrigation  during  Blooming  Period 203 

Excessive  Irrigation  in  Midsummer 203 

Too  Much  Water  causes  Winter-killing          ....  204 

Film  Moisture 205 

Free  Water 205 

Condition  of  Surface  Soil  not  a  Guide  for  Irrigation      .         .  206 

Sandy  Soil  requires  Different  Treatment  from  Heavy  Land  .  206 

Deep  Furrows  for  Heavy  Soils       ......  207 

Fall  Plowing  Desirable 209 

Late  Fall  Irrigation .211 


CHAPTER   XIV 

OTHER  PHASES  OF  ORCHARD  MANAGEMENT         •        .        .      212-223 

Horses 213 

Baby  Beef 214 

Dairying  well  adapted  to  High-priced  Land  ....  216 

Feed  and  Care  of  Cows 217 

Hogs 218 

Poultry  ....                 220 

Work  plentiful  in  an  Orchar.    CoL.itry 221 

Kinds  of  Crops  to  Grow                  221 

The  Canning  Industry    .                 223 

Small-fruits  in  the  Orchard    ,                                                      ,  222, 


xiv  Contents 

CHAPTER  XV 

PAGES 

VARIETIES 224-249 

Few  Standard  Varieties  better  than  Many     .        .        .        .226 

Testing  New  Kinds 226 

Well-known  Varieties  best  to  Plant 226 

Adaptation  of  Varieties  to  Soils     ......     227 

Potato  Soil 227 

Adaptation  depends  upon  Character  of  Growth  of  Variety   .     228 
Early  Varieties  profitable  for  Local  Markets          .         .        .234 

Hardy  Varieties  for  High  Altitudes 234 

Description  of  Varieties          .......    235 

Apricots  not  so  adaptable  to  a  Variety  of  Soils  as  the  Peach      238 

Cherries  do  best  on  Dry,  Loamy  Land 240 

Four  Groups  of  Sweet  Cherries 241 

Two  Classes  of  Sour  Cherries 241 

Peaches  are  Cosmopolitan      .......     242 

Pear  Trees  not  particular  as  to  Soils 244 

Plums  do  wkl  on  Many  Kinds  of  Soil 246 


CHAPTER  XVI 

PICKING  THE  FRUIT 260-266 

Picking  Apples       .........  257 

Picking  Apricots 260 

Picking  Cherries 260 

Picking  Peaches 261 

Picking  Pears 262 

Picking  Plums 266 

CHAPTER   XVII 

PACKING  AND  GRADING  THE  FRUIT 267-301 

Packing  and  Grading  Fruit 267 

Association  Management 269 

Packing  Appliances        ........  273 

Prices  of  Box  Materials          .......  275 

The  Apple  Box 278 

Grading  and  Packing  Apples 278 

The  Different  Kinds  of  Packs 281 


Contents  xv 

PAGES 

Wrapping  Apples 282 

Packing  Apricots 283 

Packing  Cherries 284 

Packing  Peaches 286 

Packing  Table .289 

Packing  Plums 292 

Grading  and  Packing  Pears 292 

CHAPTER  XVin 

MARKETING  FRUIT        .  302-323 

Cooperation  in  Marketing  Necessary 303 

Packing 307 

The  Hood  River  Plan 307 

F.O.B.  Sales  the  Rule 311 

Express  Shipments 312 

An  Association  benefits  the  Entire  Community     .        .        .  312 

District  Organization 315 

By-laws 316 

CHAPTER   XIX 

FROST  INJURIES,  SECONDARY  BLOOM,  AND  FROST  PROTECTION    324-354 

Various  Conditions  conducive  to  Winter  Injury    .        .        .  324 

Frost  Russet 325 

Frost  Blister 326 

Injury  to  Buds  or  Bloom 326 

Injury  to  Fruit 328 

Second-crop  Bloom 330 

Frost  Protection 334 

CHAPTER  XX 
ORCHARD  PESTS  AND  THEIR  CONTROL          ....      355-390 

Biting  Insects 357 

Sucking  Insects 358 

Orchard  Insects  and  Diseases  described  and  Remedies  Sug- 
gested        359 

Good  Spraying  Equipment  Necessary 382 

Formulas 385 

INDEX                                                                                                     ,  391 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

1.  An  Elberta  Peach  Orchard  near  Ogden,  Utah       ...  7 

2.  Leveling  with  Water 31 

3.  Hexagonal  Plan  of  Planting 43 

4.  Method  of  Marking  Land  for  Planting  .         .  .        .50 

5.  A  Root-hair.     (After  Stevens)      .' 55 

6.  A  Cross-section  of  a  Stem.     (After  Stevens)         ...  58 

7.  Cross-section  of  a  Leaf.     (After  Stevens)      ....  62 

8.  Pear  Spur  on  Left  and  Apple  Spur  on  Right,  showing  Scars 

produced  by  Death  of  Part  of  Spur 68 

9.  Once  a  Fruit-spur           68 

10.  Opening  Flower-buds  on  One-year-old  Apple  Spurs       .        .  69 

11.  Missouri  (Pippin)  showing  Axillary  Flower-buds          .         .  69 

12.  Mature  Jonathan  Apples  from  Axillary  Buds        ...  69 

13.  Axillary  Flower  Clusters  of  Duchess  Pear     ....  70 

14.  Flower-buds  of  Peach     ........  75 

15.  Flower-buds  of  Apricot 76 

16.  Flower-buds  of  Sweet  Cherry 77 

17.  Flower-buds  of  Soar  Cherry 78 

18.  Flower-buds  of  Domestica  Plum     ......  78 

19.  Low-headed    Trees,    with    Ascending    Branches.     Paonia, 

Colorado 85 

20.  Yearling  Whip,  properly  Headed-back  when  planted,  but 

improperly  trained  and  Annual  Pruning  neglected  .         .  92 

21.  Shaping  the  Top 94 

22.  Shaping  the  Top     . 95 

23.  Failure 96 

24.  Neglected 97 

25.  Young  Apple  Trees  well  Headed-in 101 

xvii 


xviii  List  of  Illustrations 

FIG.  PAGE 

26.  Low-headed    Peach    Trees,    Mesilla    Park,    New    Mexico. 

Photo  by  Garcia '     .        .        .     103 

27.  Poor  Head  on  Young  Peach.     The  Result  of  Pruning  for 

Fruit 104 

28.  The  Same  as  Fig.  27  after  One  Season's  Growth   .        .        .105 

29.  Two-year-old  Peach  Tree  well  Pruned 106 

30.  Same  as  29  before  Pruning 106 

31.  Same  Tree  as  29,  but  One  Year  later 107 

32.  Pruning  Saw 115 

33.  Pruning  Saw 116 

34.  Pruning  Shears 116 

35.  Heavy  Pruning  Shears   .        .         .         .         .        .        .        .117 

36.  Exaggerated  Type  of  Open-centered  Tree      .        .        .        .118 

37.  Jonathan,  well  Headed-in      .        ,        .        .        .        .        .119 

38.  Jonathan,  growing  Long,  Weak  Branches,  due  to  Lack  of 

proper  Pruning 120 

39.  Ben  Davis,  Fifteen  Years  Old  and  ruined.     Such  Loss  may 

be  avoided  by  proper  Pruning  .        .         .        .        .121 

40.  White  Pearmain,  showing  Type  of  Growth   .        .         .         .122 

41.  Well-trained    Peach    Tree,    Seven    Years    Old.     Palisade, 

Colorado 128 

42.  Peach  Tree,  Nine  Years  Old,  well  Trained.    Note  how  nearly 

it  conforms  to  a  Right  Angle 129 

43.  Peach  Tree  of  Same  Age  as  Fig.  42.     Note  the  Long  Limbs 

with  Fruiting-wood  only  in  the  Top          .         .         .         .131 

44.  Peach  Tree  rejuvenated  by  Cutting-back,  or  "Dehorning," 

the  Large  Limbs        ........     132 

45.  Improper  Pruning  of  Neglected  Pear  Tree      ....     134 

46.  Same  as  Fig.  45,  after  One  Season's  Growth  .        .        .        .136 

47.  Longitudinal  Section  through  a  Graft,  showing  that  Union 

takes  Place  only  around  Outer  Edge         ....     149 

48.  Transcendent  Crab  grafted  to  Winesap          .         .         .        .151 

49.  The  Same  as  48,  One  Year  later 152 

50.  The  Same  as  48,  Two  Years  later.    Grafts  mostly  Blown  out    153 
61.   Showing  Pear  Tree  Grafted  in  Small  Limbs.     The  Large 

Lower  Limbs  were  Removed  later    .        .         .         .        .159 
52.    Good  and  Poor  Cion  Wood.     Good  on  the  Right  .        .        .161 


List  of  Illustrations  xix 

FT«.  PAOB 

53.  A  Well-formed  Grafted  Tree 164 

54.  The  Operation  of  Whip-grafting 167 

55.  The  Operation  of  Budding 170 

56.  Shade-crop  of  Clover 201 

57.  Heavy  Land  well  Fun-owed 208 

58.  Sandy  Soil  well  Furrowed.     Grand  Junction,  Colorado         .  209 

59.  Cantaloupes  Growing  in  Young  Orchard        ....  222 

60.  Gathering  Newtown  Pippins.     Medford,  Oregon  .         .        .  225 

61.  A  Newtown  Pippin  Orchard.     North  Yakima,  Washington  .  230 

62.  An  Esopus  (Spitzenburg)  Orchard.     Hood  River,  Oregon     .  231 

63.  A  Mclntosh  Orchard,  Montana 233 

64.  An  Idaho  Prune  Orchard.     Boise,  Idaho       .         .        .         .246 

65.  The  Bowman  Picking  Bag 254 

66.  The  Excelsior  Picking  Receptacle 254 

67.  A  Good  Type  of  Ladder 255 

68.  The  Pole  Ladder.    .         . 256 

69.  A  Wheel  Ladder 256 

70.  A  Packing  Scene 263 

71.  Pear  on  Right  Ready  to  pick  ;  the  Other  too  Green      .        .  264 

72.  Box  Press 274 

73.  A  Typical  Box  Label  for  Extra  Fancy  Fruit ;  also  illustrates 

the  2-2  Pack 277 

74.  The  2-3  Pack 279 

75.  The  3-3  Pack 280 

76.  Straight  Pack 281 

77.  Box  of  Apples  Ready  for  Shipment,  showing  Proper  Bulge  of 

Top  and  Bottom 282 

78.  Cherry  Packages  (Courtesy  of  "  Better  Fruit ")    .         .        .285 

79.  Peaches,  6-6  Straight  Pack 286 

80.  Peaches,  3-3  Pack 287 

81.  Peaches,  4-5  Pack 288 

82.  Peaches,  2-3  Pack .        .290 

83.  Pears :  a,  2-3  Pack ;  6,  3-3  Pack ;  c,  3-4  Pack     .        .         .293 

84.  Pears,  Five-tier  Pack  of  Six-tier  Grade 294 

85.  Side  View  of  84        ...  295 

86.  Wrapping  Pears.     First,  place  Pear  in  One  Corner  of  Paper  ; 

a  Twist  to  the  Right  and  a  Cone-shaped  Package  results    297 


xx  List  of  Illustrations 

FIG.  PAGE 

87.  Frost  Russet  of  Apple 326 

88.  Frost  Blister  of  Apple  Leaf 327 

89.  Abnormal  Pears,  the  Result  of  Injury  by  Frost     .        .         .328 

90.  Longitudinal  Section  of  Frozen  Bartlett  Pear        .         .         .329 

91 .  Anjou  Pears.    The  Smaller  injured  by  Frost  when  Young    .     330 

92.  Mature  Chenango  from  Second-crop  Bloom   ....     331 

93.  From  Second-crop  Bloom  arising  from  Large  Limbs  or  Tree 

Trunks 332 

94.  Various  Types  of  Orchard  Heaters 341 

95.  Method  of  distributing  Oil 345 

96.  Orchard  Heaters  in  Position 349 

97.  An  almost  Perfect  Pack  of  Apples,  by  A.  I.  Mason,  Hood 

River,  Oregon    .........     371 

98.  Three-year-old   Elberta  Peach  Trees  at  Farmington,  New 

Mexico       ....  ,    383 


FRUIT-GROWING  IN  ARID  REGIONS 


FRUIT-GROWING  IN  ARID 
REGIONS 

CHAPTER  I 

HISTORY  AND  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  FRUIT  IN- 
DUSTRY IN  THE  ARID  AND  SRMIARID  WEST 

TWENTY  years  ago  the  idea  that  the  inter-mountain 
states  would  ever  become  important  in  fruit-growing  was 
scarcely  thought  of.  The  romance  of  mining  and  of 
cattle  grazing  was  then  at  its  height  and  but  little  thought 
was  given  to  developing  the  agricultural  resources.  Fruit- 
growing is  one  of  the  highest  types  of  intensified  farming, 
so  it  is  but  natural  that  it  is  the  last  of  the  great  resources 
of  a  new  region  to  be  developed.  The  same  has  been  true 
of  all  new  countries. 

The  idea  prevailed  in  the  early  days  that  the  semiarid 
part  of  the  United  States  was  destined  to  remain  an  un- 
fertile and  an  undeveloped  tract;  and  public  sentiment 
is  no  small  factor  in  the  development  of  a  country.  Daniel 
Webster's  speech  in  1838,  in  which  he  characterized  the 
entire  region,  beginning  with  the  great  plains  and  extend- 
ing westward  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  as  a  "vast  worthless 
area"  could  not  be  soon  forgotten.  Forty  years  later  the 
horticultural  side  of  the  question  was  still  being  debated. 
W.  G.  M.  Stone  of  Denver,  writing  in  1892,  discusses  this 
incident  in  the  following  apt  words :  — 


,-.  2  •;,-;,        ,  Fruit-Growing  in  Arid  Regions 

"It  was  in  1838.  A  measure  was  before  Congress  to 
establish  a  post-route  from  Independence,  Mo.,  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Columbia  River.  During  the  discussion, 
Daniel  Webster,  on  the  floor  of  the  Senate,  opposed  it  and 
closed  his  speech  as  follows:  'What  do  we  want  with  this 
vast  worthless  area?  this  region  of  savages  and  wild  beasts, 
of  deserts,  shifting  sands  and  whirlwinds  of  dust,  of  cactus 
and  prairie  dogs?  To  what  use  could  we  ever  hope  to  put 
these  great  deserts,  or  those  endless  mountain  ranges, 
impregnable,  and  covered  to  their  very  base  with  eternal 
snow?  What  can  we  ever  hope  to  do  with  the  western 
coast,  a  coast  of  3000  miles,  rockbound,  cheerless,  unin- 
viting, and  not  a  harbor  on  it?  What  use  have  we  for 
such  a  country?  Mr.  President,  I  will  never  vote  one 
cent  from  the  public  treasury  to  place  the  Pacific  Coast 
one  inch  nearer  to  Boston  than  it  now  is! ;  To  stand  here 
in  this  city  of  150,000  people,  to  see  these  grand  structures 
for  business,  these  palatial  homes,  and  think  of  the  countless 
interests  of  trade  and  far-reaching  enterprises;  when  we 
survey  the  state  at  large  with  its  cities  and  towns,  its 
growth  and  energy;  and  we  take  a  still  broader  view  and 
think  of  five  great  railways  crossing  the  continent  to  this 
same  rockbound  coast,  'cheerless  and  uninviting/  and 
when  we  see  these  '  impregnable '  mountains  traversed  with 
railways  and  yielding  their  ready  millions  of  gold  and 
silver,  and  find  them  also  stored  with  coal  and  iron  and 
marble,  we  wonder  how  Daniel  Webster  could  have 
uttered  such  words  as  the  above.  Ten  years  later  there 
was  a  change  —  the  treaty  of  Hidalgo ;  and  ten  years  after 
that  the  discovery  of  gold  in  the  'shifting  sands'  of  this 
'worthless'  region.  Had  all  possessed  the  same  wisdom 
of  foresight  as  Webster,  this  country  had  never  reached 
'Beyond  the  Mississippi,'  and  the  Indian,  the  buffalo, 
the  cactus  and  prairie  dog  would  be  in  full  and  undisputed 
possession  of  it,  and  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  would  be 
buying  skins  at  Vancouver.  Had  every  one  been  Web- 
sterian  in  his  range  of  adventure,  'Pike's  Peak/  the  Union 


History  and  Development  of  the  Fruit  Industry    3 

Pacific,  with  all  these  Rocky  Mountain  railways,  these 
cities,  including  San  Francisco  and  the  entire  Pacific 
Coast,  would  to-day  be  with  the  unawakened  atoms  still 
floating  in  the  primordial  abyss  of  being.  While  Web- 
ster, with  his  giant  strength,  was  holding  this  worthless 
region  away  from  Boston,  the  Carsons,  and  Fremonts,  and 
Gregories,  and  Greeleys,  and  their  thousands  of  assistants 
were  breaking  his  hold;  and  while  at  that  time  these 
mountains  were  sixty  to  seventy  days  from  Boston,  they 
are  now  within  about  as  many  hours,  and  becoming  nearer 
and  nearer  with  the  opening  of  each  succeeding  decade. 
Humanity  is  stronger  than  anyone  man;  enterprise  more 
powerful  than  conservatism;  exploration  and  discovery 
more  potent  than  apathy  and  inanition. 

" Daniel  Webster  sleeps  at  Marshfield;  his  words  linger 
as  curios.  The  energy  and  genius  of  his  fellows  and  their 
posterity  are  converting  these  'deserts'  into  gardens, 
and  causing  these  mountains  to  pour  their  long-hidden 
treasures  into  the  lap  of  the  world.  Strong  cords  of 
interest  and  fellowship  now  bind  us  to  the  Atlantic  and 
the  Atlantic  to  us,  and  Denver  stands  to-day  in  the  midst 
of  those  cheerless  realms  of  fancy  pictured  by  the  great 
statesman  to  attest  the  wondrous  change  on  this  half 
of  our  continent  within  a  lifetime,  and  the  memory  of 
thousands. 

"For  fifty  years  the  new  states  have  one  by  one  passed 
through  a  peculiar  period  of  'We  can't  raise  fruit.'  Illi- 
nois had  it;  and  Wisconsin,  Iowa,  and  Minnesota.  It  is 
like  measles  and  chicken  pox,  'must  go  round.'  Colorado 
caught  it  when  a  mere  infant  and  had  it  very  hard.  '  We 
can't  raise  fruit '  was  impressed  on  almost  every  mind 
from  the  very  first.  'Too  high!'  'too  dry!'  'too  cool  o' 
nights!' too  this!  and  too  that!  so  that  Fruit  Culture  was 
not  admitted  for  many  years,  and  when  a  few  men  less  con- 
servative than  rash  asked  to  enter  apples  at  the  annual 
exhibits,  as  Colorado  Grown,  they  were  subjects  of  legiti- 
mate suspicion  as  lunatics  or  knaves, — just  as  though 


4  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

they  had  '  salted '  their  gardens  from  a  barrel  of  Ben 
Davis  or  Greenings  from  beyond  the  Mississippi.  The 
stranger  just  arrived  and  full  of  the  dreariness  of  the  plains 
may  smile  at  the  mere  suggestion  of  fruit  in  Colorado, 
and  may  ask,  in  the  slang  of  the  day,  'What  are  you 
giving  us?'  We  shall  offer  neither  bananas  nor  oranges, 
pomegranates  nor  figs,  but  shall  beg  to  place  before  the 
mind's  eye  every  kind  of  fruit  grown  in  the  belt  north  of 
Mason  and  Dixon's  line." 

The  prevailing  opinion  that  fruit  could  not  be  grown 
in  the  arid  regions  was  fostered  locally  by  the  disastrous 
failures  that  resulted  from  many  of  the  early  attempts  at 
tree-growing.  But  it  is  a  difficult  task  for  a  man  who 
may  have  been  a  successful  farmer  in  the  East  to  work 
out,  unaided,  the  principles  of  irrigation.  Failure  often 
stimulates  desire.  So  with  the  pioneers,  they  seem  not 
to  have  been  disheartened,  and  the  repeated  attempts 
finally  proved  to  the  world  that  fruit  and  forest  trees  can 
be  grown.  It  surely  took  a  man  of  courage  in  the  face 
of  almost  universal  opposition  and  no  small  amount  of 
ridicule,  to  make  the  round  trip  from  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains by  wagon  to  Iowa  for  a  load  of  nursery  stock.  The 
general  trend  of  public  opinion  was  that  this  region  was 
to  be  devoted  forever  to  mining,  and  to  some  extent, 
to  grazing.  Anything  like  the  present  development  in 
general  agriculture  was  not  dreamed  of;  and  that  it 
should  ever  become  noted  for  the  production  of  fine  fruit 
is  not  yet  realized  by  a  majority  of  the  people. 

The  Mormons  were  the  first  to  grow  fruit  in  the  arid 
section.  The  history  of  their  immigration  to  Utah,  the 
hardships  and  privations  they  endured,  are  so  well  known 
that  it  would  be  out  of  place  to  recount  them  here,  even 


History  and  Development  of  the  Fruit  Industry      5 

if  space  would  permit.  In  regard  to  their  early  efforts 
in  fruit-growing,  Mr.  Anthon  H.  Lund,  Historian  of  the 
Latter  Day  Saints,  communicates  the  following:  — 

"In  a  General  Epistle  of  the  Church,  dated  1847,  to 
the  Saints  throughout  the  earth  and  signed  by  Prest. 
Brigham  Young,  the  following  paragraph  appears: 
'To  all  Saints,  we  would  say,  come  immediately  and 
prepare  to  go  West,  bringing  with  you  all  kinds  of  choice 
seeds,  of  grain,  vegetables,  fruits,  shrubbery,  trees,  and 
vines,  —  everything  that  will  please  the  eye,  gladden  the 
heart,  or  cheer  the  soul  of  man,  that  grows  upon  the 
face  of  the  whole  earth;  also,  the  best  stock  of  beast, 
bird,  and  fowl  of  every  kind  that  shall  tend  to  promote 
the  comfort,  health,  happiness,  or  prosperity  of  any 
people/ 

"On  the  23d  of  July,  1847,  the  advanced  company  of 
the  Pioneers  camped  on  what  was  subsequently  known 
as  the  8th  Ward  Square  of  Salt  Lake  City.  Apostle 
Orson  Pratt  called  the  camp  together,  dedicated  the  land 
to  the  Lord,  invoked  his  blessings  on  the  seeds  about  to 
be  planted.  'What/  in  the  language  of  Apostle  Wood- 
ruff, 'was  to  hinder  the  house  of  God  from  being  estab- 
lished in  the  mountains,  and  exalted  above  the  hills, 
and  these  valleys  from  being  converted  into  orchards, 
vineyards,  and  fruitful  fields.'  The  first  successful  plow- 
ing was  done  by  Wm.  Carter,  and  a  company  commenced 
the  work  of  getting  out  water  for  irrigation. 

"'By  August  the  26th/  the  historian  records,  'the 
colonists  had  laid  off  a  fort,  built  27  log  houses,  plowed 
and  planted  84  acres  with  corn,  potatoes,  beans,  buck- 
wheat, turnips,  etc/  Among  the  'seeds'  blessed  by 
Elder  Pratt  and  afterwards  planted  were  peach,  apple, 
pear,  plum  and  other  fruits.  In  due  course  of  time  these 
bore  fruits,  to  the  great  joy  of  the  people.  Nor  were 
shade  trees  lost  sight  of,  for  quarts  of  locust  seeds  were 
also  put  into  the  ground  by  the  pioneers,  and  at  this 


6  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

writing  many  of  the  pioneer  shade  trees  can  be  seen  in 
different  parts  of  the  city, 

"During  the  year  1856  the  Desert  Agricultural  and 
Manufacturing  Society  was  organized  for  promoting  the 
introduction,  improvement,  and  multiplication  of  every- 
thing needful  in  land  culture,  stock-raising,  manufactures, 
etc.,  suited  to  our  varied  conditions.  Fruit-raising  formed 
one  of  its  principal  considerations  and  industries. 

"  It  has  always  been  our  custom  to  plant  fruit  and  shade 
trees  in  the  formation  of  new  settlements  at  the  seasonable 
time  of  the  year.  Our  cities  and  towns  and  homes  all 
over  the  inter-mountain  region,  including  the  neighboring 
states,  Canada  and  Mexico,  are  embowered  in  and  sur- 
rounded with  fruit  and  shade  trees,  flowers,  etc. 

''Bancroft,  the  historian,  states  that  in  1875  Southern 
Utah  produced  544  acres  of  grapes,  the  total  yield  being 
about  1700  tons;  and  that  the  value  of  Utah's  orchard 
products  in  1883,  including  apples,  —  of  which  there 
were  at  least  90  varieties,  —  pears,  plums,  quinces,  cherries, 
peaches,  currants,  and  berries  of  many  descriptions,  was 
estimated  at  $157,000.  The  yield  of  apples  was  about 
90  bushels  to  the  acre,  of  pears  75,  of  peaches  120,  of 
plums  165,  and  cherries  75."  (Fig.  1.) 

Colorado  was  probably  the  next  to  undertake  fruit- 
growing, although  it  was  not  until  fifteen  years  after  the 
settlement  at  Salt  Lake  that  the  first  attempt  was  made. 
The  experience  of  the  Mormons  seems  not  to  have  reached 
the  world  at  large,  as  we  find  that  the  first  attempts  at 
tree -planting  near  Denver  were  generally  regarded  as 
being  impracticable.  Fortunately,  Colorado's  early  hor- 
ticultural history  has  been  recorded.  Mr.  Stanger,  the 
author,  is  a  pioneer,. and  as  editor  of  the  Colorado  Farmer 
had  much  to  do  in  finally  impressing  the  people  with  the 
fact  that  fruit  can  be  grown  in  the  state.  The  following 


History  and  Development  of  the  Fruit  Industry    7 

extract  from  Mr.  Stanger  is  taken  from  the  Report  of 
the  Colorado  State  Board  of  Horticulture  for  1903:- 

"In  the  early  spring  of  1862,  Henry  Lee,  of  Denver, 
sent  from  Iowa  City  to  his  brother,  William  Lee,  then, 
as  now,  living  on  his  farm  in  Jefferson  County,  four  miles 


FIG.  1.  —  An  Elberta  Peach  Orchard,  near  Ogden,  Utah. 

east  of  Golden,  125  apple,  peach,  pear  and  plum  stock; 
they  came  to  Denver  by  express,  and  cost  Mr.  Lee  $30. 
This  nursery  stock  was  planted  on  a  little  island  in  the 
Clear  Creek  bottoms,  the  spring  they  were  sent.  March 
24,  1864,  William  Lee  arrived  in  Denver  with  a  mule 
team,  bringing  6000  one-  and  two-year-old  apple  stocks, 
also  500  stocks  each  of  peach,  pear,  plum  and  cherry, 
which  he  planted  in  a  nursery  on  his  island  farm;  then 
no  one  thought  of  planting  anything  on  the  uplands. 

"May  27,  1864,  a  great  flood  in  Clear  Creek  destroyed 
this  nursery,  and  also  all  that  was  left  of  the  125  trees 


8  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

saved  from  a  fire  set  by  a  careless  hand  to  destroy  weeds. 
Only  about  150  of  the  6000  trees  were  rescued  from  the 
debris  left  from  the  flood,  and  in  1866  these  were  set  out 
in  an  orchard  on  Mr.  Lee's  upland  farm.  Many  of  these 
trees  are  living  yet,  and  yearly  yield  crops  of  golden  fruit, 
and  look  as  if  they  will  continue  to  do  so  for  many  years 
to  come. 

"In  the  spring  of  1863,  Hirman  C.  Wolf,  of  Denver, 
received  by  express  a  box  packed  with  different  kinds 
of  fruit  stock,  principally  berries  and  some  apple,  pear, 
and  plum,  for  which  package  he  paid  $62.  Owing  to 
poor  condition  and  lack  of  knowledge  to  handle  the  stock, 
they  failed  to  grow. 

"September  24,  1863,  Mr.  Wolf  left  Denver  with  a 
four-horse  team  and  drove  to  Des  Moines,  Iowa,  about 
nine  hundred  miles,  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  to  this 
territory  a  full  load  of  apple,  pear,  plum,  cherry,  and  berry 
stock.  Loading  there,  he,  on  the  3d  day  of  November, 
started  for  Denver  and  arrived  here  on  the  16th  day  of 
December,  1863.  The  stock  he  bought  was  buried, 
and  in  the  spring  of  1864  was  set  out  in  orchard,  prin- 
cipally in  the  Clear  Creek  bottoms,  but  some  on  the 
uplands  of  Mr.  Wolf's  farm  one  mile  south  of  Arvada, 
in  Jefferson  County. 

"The  great  flood  in  Clear  Creek  in  1864  destroyed 
nearly  all  of  the  orchard  planted  in  the  bottom,  and  the 
lack  of  irrigation  caused  that  planted  on  the  uplands  to 
perish.  None  of  the  trees  of  this  costly  experiment  of 
Mr.  Wolf's  lives  to-day,  and  it  is  only  a  reminiscence. 

"In  1870,  Mr.  J.  W.  Cook,  of  Ralston  Creek,  Jefferson 
County,  brought  from  Illinois  a  lot  of  orchard,  berry,  and 
grape  stock,  and  set  them  out  on  his  farm  in  that  valley. 
Mr.  Cook  was  a  practical  nurseryman  in  Illinois,  but 
failed  to  succeed  in  Colorado  with  Illinois  methods  of 
tree  culture.  He  was  an  enthusiast  and  somewhat 
erratic,  but  he  did  make  a  success  of  his  orchard  and 
vineyard,  and  taught  us  many  a  profitable  lesson.  He 


History  and  Development  of  the  Fruit  Industry    9 

has  been  dead  many  years,  but  neither  he  nor  his  enthu- 
siastic endeavors  to  impress  all  with  whom  he  came  in 
contact  as  to  the  possibilities  of  Colorado  for  fruit-raising 
are  forgotten. 

"  Henry  Lee,  in  1870,  brought  from  Iowa  fifteen  thousand 
nursery  stock  and  sold  these  from  his  place  of  business 
in  Denver  to  many  customers,  most  notable  of  whom  are 
David  Brothers,  Mart  L.  Everett,  Joseph  Morris,  Wilson 
Perrin,  and  others,  principally  located  on  Wheat  Ridge, 
a  suburb  of  this  city.  Many  of  these  trees  are  living 
to-day  and  yearly  produce  crops  of  apples. 

"As  nearly  correct  as  can  at  this  time  be  positively 
determined,  the  late  Wilson  Perrin  started  in  1869  or 
1870  the  first  nursery  in  the  territory  of  Colorado  on  his 
farm  on  Wheat  Ridge,  four  miles  west  of  Denver.  His 
example  was  soon  followed  by  others,  notably  H.  G. 
Wolfe,  of  Denver,  and  G.  W.  Webster,  of  Longmont, 
Boulder  County,  Colorado,  and  J.  W.  Cook,  and  also,  about 
the  same  time,  nursery  stock  was  set  out  in  the  Union 
colony  at  Greeley,  Weld  County.  And  here  permit  me 
to  digress  and  read  to  you  part  of  a  private  and  char- 
acteristic letter  from  the  Hon.  J.  Max  Clark,  in  reply  to 
an  inquiry  of  mine  for  facts  on  fruit-raising  in  the  Union 
colony. 

"Mr.  Daniel  Stanley,  a  settler  in  Boulder  County,  in 
1865,  brought  by  mule  team  from  Iowa  a  lot  of  orchard 
stock  and  sold  them  to  his  neighbors,  notably  of  whom 
were  G.  W.  Webster  and  J.  W.  Goss,  of  Hygiene,  Colorado. 
I  here  incorporate  into  this  address  an  extract  from  a  letter 
of  a  late  date  from  the  latter  gentleman.  He  says,  writ- 
ing of  Stanley's  venture:  'I  bought  six  out  of  this  lot 
and  set  them  out  in  1866.  I  paid  for  six  trees,  $30. 
Four  of  those  six  trees  are  alive  to-day,  and  have  been 
bearing  since  about  the  fourth  year  after  setting  out. 
Two  of  them  are  yellow  sweets  (I  do  not  know  the  name), 
one  is  Red  Astrachan,  and  the  other  is  a  winter  variety, 
something  like  the  Ben  Davis,  but  better  in  flavor/ 


10  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

"In  1870  Mr.  G.  W.  Webster  planted  a  considerable 
orchard,  the  trees  being  brought  from  California,  and  for 
years  was  an  ardent  and  persistent  advocate  of  the  possi- 
bilities of  Colorado  for  fruit-growing,  and  was  one  of  the 
first,  with  William  Lee  and  J.  W.  Cook,  to  exhibit  home- 
grown orchard-fruits  at  the  yearly  fairs  of  the  agricultural 
association  of  Colorado.  Others  there  were  in  northern 
Colorado  who  planted  about  this  time  orchard-fruits, 
but  who,  from  modesty  or  other  reasons,  kept  their  light 
under  a  bushel,  and  I  have  not  been  able  to  bring  them 
to  the  light  of  history. 

"In  1864  or  1865  Mr.  Jesse  Frazier,  of  Florence,  Fre- 
mont County,  Colorado,  brought  from  Missouri,  by  team, 
a  quantity  of  different  varieties  of  orchard-fruit  stock, 
and  set  them  out  on  his  farm  at  that  place.  In  the  files 
of  the  Colorado  Farmer  is  a  letter  to  me,  giving  a  full 
history  of  this  venture  of  Mr.  Frazier 's;  but  these  files 
are  not  now  accessible.  This  nursery  and  orchard  was 
the  nucleus  from  which  has  sprung  the  grand  achieve- 
ments of  the  orchardists  of  the  Arkansas  Valley.  His 
example  was  followed  by  Mr.  Helm  and  others.  I  have 
been  disappointed  in  obtaining  more  definite  information 
of  Mr.  Frazier's  orchard,  but  the  honor  is  to  him  for  being 
the  pioneer  orchardist  of  this  grand  fruit-growing  section 
of  our  state. 

"So  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  definitely  ascertain,  the 
above-mentioned  efforts  were  the  beginning  of  planting 
of  orchards  and  nurseries  in  Colorado.  In  1874,  1875,  and 
1876  strenuous  endeavors  were  made  through  the  columns 
of  the  Colorado  Farmer  to  arouse  an  interest  in  this  branch 
of  agricultural  industry,  and  the  results  were  favorable. 
Rarely  were  there  heard  any  wails  from  the  disapproving 
Jeremiahs.  These  prophets  no  longer  had  any  honor  in 
the  land;  pessimists  there  were,  but  many  more  opti- 
mists could  be  found.  The  chief  kick  was,  it  would  not 
pay.  Nurseries  were  planted,  and  they  prospered  — 
some  more,  some  less." 


History  and  Development  of  the  Fruit  Industry  11 

The  history  of  fruit-growing  in  the  various  other  parts 
of  the  West  from  the  early  sixties  is  much  the  same. 
In  most  cases  it  has  meant  hardship  and  the  expenditure 
of  much  time  and  money.  Gradually,  orchards  became 
established  in  a  few  localities,  and  as  travel  increased,  the 
fact  that  fruit  could  be  grown  in  the  mountain  regions 
became  common  knowledge. 

Commercial  fruit-growing  in  the  arid  region  is  of  very 
recent  date;  in  fact,  the  first  important  shipments  of  fruit 
to  points  outside  were  made  by  the  Fruit  Growers'  As- 
sociation of  Grand  Junction,  Colorado,  in  1897.  Since 
this  time  development  has  been  rapid.  There  are  now 
many  thousands  of  acres  planted  to  orchards,  and  the 
available  territory  is  being  constantly  increased  by  the 
construction  of  new  irrigation  projects.  In  response  to 
the  unprecedented  demand  for  land,  not  only  are  the  new 
lands  being  developed,  but  the  large  ranches  are  being 
divided.  Thus  history  repeats  itself,  as  it  is  well  known 
that  irrigated  countries  are  the  most  densely  populated 
and  that  they  average  the  smallest  farms  in  the  world. 
This  is  due  largely,  if  not  entirely,  to  the  fact  that  the  water 
supply  being  under  control,  each  acre  may  be  made  to 
produce  a  maximum  crop.  It  has  been  estimated  that 
one  acre  of  good  irrigated  land,  intelligently  cultivated, 
will  produce  a  far  better  living  for  a  man  and  his  family 
than  can  be  purchased  by  60  per  cent  of  the  average  wage 
earning  of  the  American  factory  hand. 

Irrigation  divides  and  subdivides  lands  into  small  home 
tracts.  The  best  examples  of  communities  of  small 
farms  in  the  United  States  are  to  be  seen  in  various  parts 
of  California.  Here  may  be  found  collections  of  farms 


12  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

of  a  few  acres  in  extent,  and  each  self-supporting  and  in 
many  instances  yielding  the  owner  a  good  income.  These 
communities  often  extend  over  hundreds  of  acres,  and  yet 
the  homes  are  so  close  together  as  to  suggest  to  the  traveler 
that  he  is  passing  through  the  suburbs  of  a  large  city. 

This  centralizing  movement  has  already  begun  in  the 
Rocky  Mountain  region,  as  one  may  see  by  visiting  the 
more  prosperous  communities  in  any  one  of  the  several 
states,  such  as  the  Grand  Valley  in  Colorado,  the  Cache 
Valley  in  Utah,  the  Willammette  Valley  in  Oregon,  the 
Yakima  Valley  in  Washington  the  Payette  Valley  in  Idaho, 
Bitter  Root  Valley  in  Montana,  the  Mesilla  Valley  in  New 
Mexico,  and  many  others.  We  may  confidently  expect  to 
see  this  movement  increase  very  rapidly  in  the  near  future, 
and  the  basis  of  this  intensive  farming  will  be  the  various 
horticultural  products. 


CHAPTER   II 
LOCATION,   EXPOSURE,  SOILS,   AND    WINDBREAKS 

THE  stranger  who  is  about  to  locate  in  the  inter-moun- 
tain states  is  often  at  a  loss  to  know  why  all  localities  at 
the  same  altitude  are  not  equally  well  adapted  to  fruit- 
growing. In  a  few  favored  localities  peaches  are  success- 
fully grown  at  an  altitude  above  6000  feet.  But  on  the 
eastern  slope  of  the  mountains  no  peaches  are  grown  com- 
mercially without  winter  protection  where  the  altitude 
is  only  5000  feet.  Occasionally  crops  of  peaches  are  pro- 
duced in  the  lower  Arkansas  Valley,  and  in  some  favored 
localities  on  the  plains  where  the  elevation  is  much  less. 
But  in  general,  it  may  be  said  that,  as  a  rule,  fruit  cannot 
be  grown  to  any  extent  at  an  altitude  much  above  5000 
feet,  and  at  this  height  much  depends  on  the  protection 
afforded  by  the  mountains. 

Generally  speaking,  the  fruit  belt  on  the  eastern  slope 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  with  the  exception  noted  above, 
consists  of  an  irregular  area  along  the  foothills  not  over 
ten  miles  in  width.  Beyond  this  distance  the  limits  of 
the  profitable  production  of  tree-fruits  at  present  are  soon 
reached.  Success  is  due  to  the  protection  afforded  by  the 
mountain  range  from  drying  winds  and  hailstorms,  from 
cold  in  winter,  and  from  late  spring  frosts.  Small-fruits, 
which  may  be  given  winter  protection,  are  grown  in  any 
situation  where  the  common  grains  will  mature, 

13 


14  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

The  narrow  valleys  in  the  foothills  are  especially  well 
adapted  to  fruit-growing,  and  some  of  these,  where  irri- 
gation is  possible,  support  very  prosperous  communities. 
Such  locations  are  especially  favorable  for  growing  fruit, 
not  only  because  of  the  protection  afforded  by  the  hills, 
but  because  a  breeze  invariably  blows  down  the  canons 
at  night  and  prevents  many  frosts. 

All  orchards  that  are  located  away  from  the  hills,  even 
a  short  distance,  should  be  protected  on  the  west  at 
least,  and  preferably  also  on  the  north  as  well,  by  a  wind- 
break. 

The  question  of  air  drainage  is  always  important, 
but  cold  air  is  not  nearly  so  likely  to  become  " pocketed" 
here  as  in  the  states  farther  to  the  east.  However,  low 
lands  that  are  not  affected  by  a  night  breeze  should  be 
looked  upon  with  suspicion  until  they  have  been  tried. 

In  the  inter-mountain  region  proper,  the  fruit  lands 
are  more  confined  to  comparatively  narrow  valleys  that 
are  protected  by  high  mountains  on  all  sides  and  that 
are  also  likely  to  be  favored  by  an  evening  breeze.  This 
protection,  producing  warmer  and  milder  and  more 
stable  winter  weather,  as  well  as  less  liability  to  late  spring 
frosts,  together  with  good  soil  and  an  abundant  water 
supply,  makes  an  ideal  fruit  region.  But  even  in  the 
famous  peach-growing  districts,  frosty  places  are  likely 
to  occur.  We  have  in  mind  two  examples  that  illustrate 
this  point.  One  famous  locality,  which  has  never  had 
an  entire  failure  of  the  peach  crop,  and  where  vinifera 
grapes  are  also  grown,  is  located  at  the  mouth  of  a  canon. 
The  night  breeze  down  the  canon  is  almost  a  complete 
insurance  against  late  spring  frosts,  for  a  distance  of 


Location,  Exposure,  Soils,  and  Windbreaks     15 

one  to  four  miles  down  the  valley.  Beyond  this  rather 
indefinite  line,  frosts  occasionally  occur.  In  another 
near-by  equally  favored  neighborhood,  two  narrow  valleys 
come  together  and  form  a  broader  valley.  Below  this 
point  for  several  miles,  and  in  the  narrow  valleys  as  well, 
the  night  breeze  is  almost  certain  insurance  against 
damaging  frosts  in  the  late  spring.  But  at  the  inter- 
section of  the  two  valleys  there  is  an  abrupt  mountain, 
and  at  its  base  there  is  a  small  area  where  the  night  breeze 
is  not  so  noticeable.  The  orchards  that  are  located  here 
have  been  damaged  by  frost,  while  those  both  above  and 
below  have  escaped.  A  dozen  miles  below  this  point, 
where  the  valley  is  much  wider,  a  part  of  it  has  the 
reputation  of  being  "frosty,"  while  the  adjacent  mesas 
are  much  more  favorable  for  fruit-growing. 

Soils 

The  average  soil  of  the  arid  region  will  grow  good  apples, 
but  preference  should  always  be  given  to  the  deep  loams 
that  have  good  natural  drainage.  These  loams  may  be 
either  clayey  or  sandy.  Those  that  have  a  predominance 
of  clay  are  perhaps  the  stronger  and  more  lasting,  but  the 
red  sandstone  soils  are  much  more  easy  to  work  and  to 
keep  in  good  tilth.  Heavy  adobe  soils  should  be  avoided, 
as  they  are  difficult  to  till,  and  are  also  difficult  to 
irrigate  properly.  Shallow  soil  should  also  be  avoided, 
particularly  for  apple-growing,  as  the  fertility  is  soon 
exhausted;  but  what  is  more  important,  the  roots  of  the 
trees  spread  out  near  the  surface,  where  they  are  exposed 
to  the  influence  of  sun,  frost,  wind,  and  drought.  While 
it  is  true  that  many  fairly  good  apple  orchards  are  growing 


16  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

on  this  kind  of  land,  it  is  difficult  to  keep  them  in  good 
condition. 

The  one  thing  that  all  semiarid  soils  is  liable  to  be 
lacking  in  is  organic  matter.  The  climatic  conditions 
are  such  that  this  important  soil  constituent  is  rapidly 
exhausted,  and  many  orchards,  particularly  in  the  newer 
sections,  are  planted  on  desert  land  that  was  given  no 
preparation  except  clearing  and  plowing  a  few  furrows 
for  the  tree  rows;  the  space  between  the  rows  was  plowed 
as  time  permitted.  These  soils  contained  almost  no 
vegetable  matter  when  planted,  and  as  clean  cultivation 
is  nearly  the  universal  practice,  but  little  has  since  been 
added. 

One  of  the  more  important  actions  of  decaying  vegetable 
matter  is  that  it  tends  to  prevent  clayey  soils  from  be- 
coming hard  or  puddled.  It  is  a  noticeable  fact  that 
toward  the  middle  or  latter  part  of  the  season,  soil  that 
appeared  to  be  in  good  tilth  in  the  spring  gradually  be- 
comes more  and  more  compact,  until  finally,  in  the  worst 
types,  it  becomes  almost  impervious  to  water.  Measure- 
ments taken  in  such  an  orchard  in  August  will  illustrate 
this  point.  Water  had  been  running  in  the  furrows 
twenty-four  hours.  Two  furrows  between  each  two  rows 
of  trees  were  supposed  to  be  sufficient  to  irrigate  the 
orchard,  allowing  the  water  to  run  twenty-four  hours. 
Measurements  taken  just  after  the  water  had  been  turned 
off  showed  that  the  moisture  had  penetrated  to  a  depth 
of  only' eighteen  inches,  and  twenty-eight  inches  laterally. 
It  is  obvious  that  trees  should  never  be  planted  in  such  soil. 

There  are  a  great  many  acres  of  such  land  planted  to 
orchards,  and  it  is  safe  to  say  that  the  most  of  it  will  sooner 


Location,  Exposure,  Soils,  and  Windbreaks      17 

or  later  be  given  over  to  the  growing  of  alfalfa,  grain, 
and  similar  crops.  In  its  native  state  such  land  usually 
develops  a  rank  growth  of  grease-wood  (Sarcobatus 
vermiculatus) ,  and  is  commonly  known  as  grease- wood 
land.  In  some  regions  there  is  a  strong  prejudice  against 
using  grease-wood  land  of  any  description  for  orchard 
purposes.  However,  this  is  certainly  carrying  a  preju- 
dice too  far,  as  many  of  our  most  valuable  orchards 
are  located  on  land  which  must  come  under  this  general 
description.  Some  of  this  land  is  sandy,  and  therefore 
is  easy  to  work  at  all  times. 

Sage-brush  land,  on  the  other  hand,  is  usually  good 
orchard  land.  It  derives  its  name  from  the  fact  that  in 
the  wild  state  the  characteristic  vegetation  is  the  so- 
called  sage-brush  (species  of  Artemisia).  This  shrub  often 
grows  over  extensive  areas,  to  the  exclusion  of  all  other 
woody  plants,  and  on  the  higher  mesas  there  is  often  a 
mixed  growth  of  sage  and  cedar  or  pinon  trees.  This 
type  of  soil  contains  more  sand  and  gravel,  is  not  inclined 
to  bake,  irrigates  easily,  and  consequently  is  one  of  the 
best  types  for  orchard  purposes. 

So-called  volcanic  ash  soils  are  common  in  Idaho  and 
other  parts  of  the  Northwest.  The  origin  and  com- 
position of  such  soils  are  imperfectly  understood,  but  that 
they  are  well  adapted  to  the  growing  of  fruit  has  been 
clearly  demonstrated.  A.  L.  Knisely,  formerly  chemist 
of  the  Oregon  Agricultural  College,  has  the  following 
to  say  in  regard  to  them:  " There  are  certain  regions, 
especially  in  eastern  Oregon  and  adjacent  states,  in  which 
part  of  the  soil  is  known  as  volcanic  ash  soil.  Soils  which 
have  this  name  are  usually  very  uniform  and  are  ex- 
c 


18  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

ceedingly  fine;  some  of  them  are  of  considerable  depth, 
The  supposition  is  that  their  origin  was  from  some  vol- 
cano, probably  in  our  region  from  Mt.  Hood,  which  is 
almost  an  extinct  volcano,  though  not  quite,  since  at  the 
present  time  considerable  fumes  of  sulfur  and  steam 
are  given  out  from  the  old  crater.  I  might  also  add  that 
this  soil  is  exceedingly  rich  in  mineral  plant-food,  es- 
pecially in  potash  and  phosphoric  acid,  and  seems  to  be 
almost  inexhaustible  when  the  supply  of  humus  and 
nitrogen  is  kept  up  in  it. 

"I  believe  some  think  that  some  of  this  soil  was  thrown 
out  as  a  dust  from  the  volcano,  others  that  it  is  disinte- 
grated lava.  This  may  give  you  some  idea  as  to  what 
we  term  volcanic  ash  soil." 

Such  soils,  in  common  with  others  of  the  region,  are  de- 
ficient in  vegetable  matter,  and  consequently  the  nitrogen 
content  is  low.  This  feature  may  be  corrected  by  the 
judicious  use  of  shade-crops  in  the  orchards  and  by  grow- 
ing alfalfa  before  the  land  is  planted  to  trees. 

Some  instances  occur  where  it  is  difficult  to  grow  trees 
successfully  because  of  excessive  drainage.  The  soil  is 
so  loose  in  its  make-up  that  water  rapidly  sinks  and  is 
soon  lost.  This  character  might  be  corrected,  to  some 
extent  at  least,  by  the  addition  of  organic  matter,  which 
may  be  best  supplied  by  plowing  under  green-manure. 

The  Subsoil 

The  subsoil  is  as  important  as  the  surface  soil;  this  is 
a  feature  that  is  often  overlooked  and  on  which  the  uniniti- 
ated are  often  deceived.  Mesa  lands  are  often  shallow, 
being  underlaid  with  a  layer  of  marl,  gypsum,  or  shale. 


Location,  Exposure,  Soils,  and  Windbreaks     19 

Gypsum  rarely  occurs,  while  marl  is  common,  but  the  cas- 
ual observer  is  not  able  to  distinguish  between  the  two. 
They  are  usually  light-colored,  chalky  materials,  and  may 
occur  in  compact  layers  or  mixed  with  earth.  If  the 
layer  is  compact  and  near  the  surface,  naturally  the  soil 
is  shallow,  and  so  the  plant-food  is  soon  exhausted.  While 
it  is  true  that  tree  roots  may  penetrate  these  layers,  the 
majority  of  them  do  not  do  so,  but  rather  spread  out 
laterally,  thus  producing  a  shallow-rooted  system.  Here 
the  roots  are  exposed  to  sun  and  frost,  and  as  the  soil  is 
easily  dried  out,  constant  care  is  necessary  to  keep  the 
trees  in  good  condition.  It  is  on  such  soils  that  the  so- 
called  tuft  blight,  or  rosette,  of  apple  trees  occurs,  and 
where  stunted  trees  with  yellow  foliage  are  often  seen. 
Much  of  the  fruit  grown  under  these  conditions  is  under- 
sized, and  thus  but  comparatively  small  amounts  can  be 
marketed  as  first-class. 

With  proper  attention  to  watering,  cultivation,  and 
fertilizing,  much  can  be  done  to  ameliorate  such  subsoil. 
In  fact,  a  few  growers  are  meeting  with  good  success  with 
orchards  on  this  kind  of  land.  A  system  of  green-manur- 
ing, as  set  forth  under  the  head  of  Shade-crops  (Chapter 
XII) ,  would  be  of  special  benefit  under  these  conditions. 
It  has  also  been  found  by  experience  that  certain  varieties 
of  apples  are  much  better  adapted  than  others  to  such 
soils. 

The  base  of  both  gypsum  and  marl  is  lime;  and  it  is 
thought  by  some  investigators  that  the  lime  in  the  marl 
is  very  harmful  to  fruit  trees.  Whether  this  is  true 
in  the  case  of  marly  soils  of  this  region  remains  to  be 
determined. 


20  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

Very  rarely  what  are  known  locally  as  cement  soils 
are  found.  For  some  reason,  which  is  not  known  to  the 
writers,  such  soils  cannot  be  made  to  take  enough  water, 
by  ordinary  methods,  to  support  trees  and  keep  them  in 
a  vigorous  condition.  In  a  few  instances  orchards  planted 
on  this  kind  of  soil  have  been  relieved  by  digging  several 
holes  around  each  tree.  A  post-hole  digger  was  used  for 
the  purpose,  and  the  holes  were  filled  with  coarse  manure. 
Water  was  then  turned  on,  and  the  results  indicate  that 
the  ground  became  well  moistened. 

Sinking  Land 

Land  that  settles  when  water  is  applied  is  known  as 
sinking  land.  Some  of  the  highest-priced  peach  orchards 
are  located  on  such  areas.  To  all  outward  appearances 
this  land  does  not  differ  from  that  found  in  many  other 
places.  No  hint  as  to  this  peculiar  characteristic  is  gained 
from  the  general  looks  of  it;  but  when  irrigation  is  at- 
tempted, irregular  patches,  here  and  there,  settle  four  or 
more  feet,  and  in  some  cases  cracks  occur  that  may  extend 
into  the  ground  to  a  depth  of  fifteen  feet.  Such  an  oc- 
currence is  surely  alarming,  to  say  the  least,  to  the 
uninitiated. 

In  one  locality,  where  there  is  a  small  tract  of  such  land, 
the  owner  attempted  to  establish  an  orchard,  and  planted 
the  trees  before  the  land  had  been  irrigated.  At  the  first 
application  of  water,  spots  of  land  here  and  there  began  to 
sink,  and  deep  cracks  were  formed.  Of  course  it  was  im- 
possible to  save  the  trees  with  the  land  in  such  condition, 
and  the  owner  was  obliged  to  give  up.  This  type  of  land 
may  usually  be  "  settled  "  in  one  season  if  water  is  persist- 


Location,  Exposure,  Soils,  and  Windbreaks     21 

ently  applied.  It  often  requires  more  time,  however,  and 
as  the  "settling"  is  very  uneven,  much  leveling  is  required 
in  order  to  fit  the  land  for  cultivation.  The  tendency  to 
settle  appears  to  be  due  to  the  porous  condition  of  the 

subsoil. 

Seepage 

The  presence  of  an  underlying  stratum  of  shale  within 
six  feet  of  the  surface  should  always  be  looked  on  with 
suspicion,  and  as  a  rule,  such  land  should  be  avoided  for 
orchard  purposes.  Wet  or  " seeped"  places  are  bound  to 
occur  as  irrigation  increases,  for  the  reason  that  the  water 
cannot  escape  except  by  evaporation.  Consequently,  the 
level  of  the  water  in  the  soil  gradually  rises  until  it  comes 
to  the  surface.  This  may  occur  only  in  small  spots  which 
do  no  great  amount  of  harm,  but  usually  these  areas  grad- 
ually spread  until  from  a  few  to  many  acres  are  involved. 
Large  tracts  of  valuable  orchards  have  been  ruined  in  this 
way. 

An  impervious  layer  of  clay  is  also  sometimes  found 
which  has  the  same  effect  as  shale.  There  are  other  pecul- 
iar formations  which  tend  to  hold  water.  One  which  is 
more  or  less  common  occurs  in  soils  that  are  rather  deep 
and  porous  but  not  stratified.  Water  moves  easily  among 
the  particles  of  such  soils,  but  not  to  any  extent  laterally, 
as  is  the  case  where  strata  occur.  Such  soils  are  very 
likely  to  become  seepy,  especially  when  they  occur  at  the 
lower  levels,  and  when  irrigation  is  practiced  on  the  higher 
lands  adjacent. 

According  to  surveys  made  by  the  Bureau  of  Soils  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  however,  by  far 
the  greatest  amount  of  damage  by  seepage  in  the  fruit 


22  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

regions  is  due  to  the  gradual  rise  of  the  level  of  water  in 
the  ground,  and  which  is  caused  by  excessive  irrigation. 
Under  these  conditions  any  soil  that  is  at  all  retentive 
of  moisture  may  become  wet.  This  is  especially  true  of 
the  low-lying  land  where  the  adjacent  higher  lands  are 
irrigated. 

A  rational  use  of  water  in  irrigation  will,  of  course,  lessen 
the  damage  by  seepage,  and  by  conservative  and  intelli- 
gent drainage,  practically  all  seeped  lands  should  be  re- 
claimed. Moreover,  in  the  case  of  fruit  regions,  the  high 
price  which  such  land  brings  will  usually  make  drainage 
profitable. 

Alkali 

In  brief,  alkali  land  is  always  seeped  land,  or  at  least  the 
efflorescence  of  alkali  upon  the  surface  of  the  ground  can 
occur  only  where  the  evaporation  of  water  takes  place. 
It  is  rare  indeed  that  soil  in  the  virgin  state  contains 
enough  of  these  salts  to  be  harmful  to  the  ordinary  orchard 
and  farm  crops. 

The  name  alkali  is  comprehensive,  and  includes  the  salts 
of  sodium,  potassium,  magnesium,  and  calcium.  The  so- 
called  black  alkali,  sodium  carbonate,  occurs  but  rarely 
in  the  inter-mountain  fruit  regions.  These  substances  are 
all  more  or  less  soluble,  and  may  occur  in  any  soil  forma- 
tion. Originally  they  were  constituents  of  certain  rocks, 
particularly  feldspars,  from  which  they  are  dissolved. 
They  are  taken  into  solution  and  carried  to  the  fields 
during  irrigation, where  they  may  be  deposited  by  evapora- 
tion. But  such  deposits  rarely  occur  in  sufficient  amounts 
to  be  harmful;  therefore  it  may  be  safely  assumed  that 
alkali  never  collects  in  excessive  quantities  in  cultivated 


Location,  Exposure,  Soils,  and  Windbreaks    23 

land  where  there  is  a  free  downward  movement  of  water, 
and  that  the  reclamation  of  alkali  land,  where,,black  alkali 
is  not  present,  is  largely,  if  not  entirely,  a  question  of 
drainage. 

But  little  can  be  said  here  on  the  practice  of  drainage 
where  irrigation  is  practiced,  for  the  reason  that  an  en- 
gineer should  usually  be  consulted.  The  problems  are 
quite  different  from  those  that  are  involved  in  the  humid 
states. 

It  has  long  been  the  notion  that  many  crops  cannot  be 
successfully  grown  in  soil  strongly  impregnated  with  these 
salts.  This  would  be  true  with  black  alkali,  but  after 
many  years'  study  of  Colorado  soils  and  a  great  many  an- 
alyses of  soils  from  all  parts  of  the  state,  Dr.  Headden  has 
never  been  able  to  find  more  than  a  trace  of  this  substance. 
Moreover,  he  finds  that  all  of  our  common  vegetables, 
orchard  and  farm  crops,  thrive  in  soils  that  contain  as  high 
as  4.69  per  cent,  or  160,000  pounds  per  acre,  of  soluble 
white  alkalies  in  the  first  foot  of  soil. 

We  may  therefore  safely  conclude  that  alkali  is  respon- 
sible for  little  or  no  damage  in  this  region.  But  where  it 
collects  in  excess,  we  may  be  sure  of  the  presence  of  free 
water.  Alkali,  then,  is  a  question  of  seepage,  and  the 
death  of  trees  and  crops  on  such  land  is  due,  in  a  large 
measure  at  least,  to  water. 

Soil  Surveys 

It  should  be  mentioned  here  that  the  Bureau  of  Soils  of 
the  Department  of  Agriculture  is  doing  a  valuable  work 
in  making  surveys  of  soils,  although  these  surveys  are  yet 
confined  to  relatively  few  regions.  This  work  comprises 


24  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

mechanical  analyses  of  soils,  the  determining  of  the  nature 
of  subsoils,  the  cause  of  seepage,  as  well  as  other  features  of 
a  similar  nature.  The  questions  of  climate,  physiography, 
and  geology  are  also  considered.  A  fairly  accurate  map 
accompanies  the  descriptions,  in  which  is  given  the  location 
of  the  different  types  of  soil  and  other  important  features. 
Such  work  requires  a  great  deal  of  time;  consequently, 
but  a  comparatively  small  amount  of  the  total  area  of  the 
United  States  has  as  yet  been  surveyed.  But  fortunately 
a  few  regions  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  states  have  been  sur- 
veyed, and  any  one  who  is  interested  in  fruit-growing  or  in 
farming  in  general  will  profit  by  reading  these  reports.  By 
making  a  study  of  such  a  survey  one  can  readily  determine, 
within  limits,  to  be  sure,  the  kind  of  land  that  is  best 
adapted  to  different  crops,  and  where  it  is  located. 

Windbreaks 

The  fruit  districts  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  region  are 
not  subject  to  severe  winds,  and  in  the  best  fruit  sections  a 
windbreak  would  be  a  nuisance.  But  in  some  of  the  lesser 
fruit  regions  conditions  are  such  that  a  protection  from 
wind  will  usually  be  a  great  help.  The  winters  are  com- 
monly dry,  and  no  provision  has  yet  been  made  for  winter 
irrigation.  Consequently,  when  winds  occur,  even  though 
they  are  not  severe,  their  effects  are  severely  felt.  Scarcely 
a  winter  passes  but  that  many  young  trees  perish  under 
such  conditions  simply  by  becoming  dry,  —  the  common 
cause  of  most  of  the  so-called  " freezing  dry."  Wind- 
breaks will  certainly  be  a  great  aid  in  preventing  this  loss, 
at  the  same  time  being  beneficial  in  many  other  respects. 
If  fruit  is  to  be  grown  at  any  considerable  distance  from 


Location,  Exposure,  Soils,  and  Windbreaks    25 

the  foothills,  protection  from  north  and  west  winds  will  be 
essential  in  most  localities. 

Every  farmer  owes  it  to  his  family  to  see  that  an  abun- 
dance of  fruit  is  provided  for  their  use.  But  in  the  strictly 
agricultural  districts,  even  the  kitchen-garden  is  often 
wanting.  The  lack  of  a  garden  is  due  to  neglect  in 
many  instances,  but  the  sentiment  seems  to  prevail  that 
fruit-growing  is  impossible,  even  for  home  consumption. 
But  a  few  people  in  almost  every  locality,  where  there 
is  any  possibility  of  fruit  trees  growing  at  all,  are  proving 
that,  with  suitable  protection,  much  may  be  accom- 
plished. 

Windbreaks,  as  the  term  implies,  are  plantations  of 
trees  or  similar  plants  intended  to  check  the  force  of  the 
wind.  They  may  be  used  to  lessen  the  drying  effects  of 
winds  both  in  winter  and  in  summer,  to  prevent  injury  or 
loss  to  fruit  in  autumn,  and  to  check  or -deflect  the  cold 
winds  of  winter  from  yards  and  buildings.  Windbreaks 
for  the  last  purpose  are 'usually  called  shelter-belts,  and 
are  often  several  rods  in  width. 

The  location  of  the  windbreak  will  depend,  of  course,  on 
the  direction  of  the  prevailing  winds.  For  general  pur- 
poses, the  north  and  west  sides  of  the  area  are  the  ones 
along  which  the  breaks  are  planted  in  most  parts  of  the 
West.  Shelter-belts  should  be  planted  far  enough  from 
buildings  so  that  drifting  snows  on  the  inner  side  will  not 
be  an  inconvenience. 

The  simplest  kind  of  windbreak  is  formed  by  planting 
some  one  species  of  tree  in  a  single,  close  row.  If  a  tall- 
growing  tree  is  used  alone  in  this  way,  there  is  a  tendency 
for  the  trees  to  spindle  up,  and  in  time  the  trunks  lose  their 


26  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

lower  branches.  Such  an  arrangement  may  do  very  well 
for  a  time,  or  where  only  partial  checking  of  the  wind's 
force  is  desired.  But  where  more  complete  shelter  is 
desired,  it  is  usually  necessary  to  plant  several  rows  of 
different  species,  so  arranged  that  the  low,  dense-growing 
kinds  will  fill  in  the  places  between  the  taller  ones. 

For  the  taller-growing  tree  in  this  region  the  common 
cottonwood  may  be  used,  setting  the  trees  about  eight  feet 
apart  for  the  outer  or  north  and  west  rows.  A  second  row 
of  some  denser-growing  kind  should  be  planted  about  eight 
feet  from  the  first  and  as  close  as  four  feet  in  the  row.  For 
this  purpose  box-elder  is  a  suitable  tree,  except  in  dry 
situations,  in  which  case  the  green  ash  is  recommended. 
The  trees  in  the  third  row  may  be  planted  as  in  the  second 
row,  using  a  more  compact-growing  kind.  The  Russian 
golden  willow  is  recommended  for  this  purpose  as  a  rapid 
grower.  The  Russian  olive  (Elceagnus)  is  a  more  compact 
tree  of  lower  growth  and  is  particularly  desirable.  White 
or  American  elm  is  also  a  suitable  tree  for  the  inner  rows 
in  many  places,  particularly  where  a  fair  amount  of  mois- 
ture can  be  depended  on. 

In  cases  where  the  wind  is  exceptionally  strong,  it  may 
be  necessary  to  plant  a  belt  four  or  five  rods  wide,  in  order 
to  secure  complete  protection.  The  outer  two  rows  may 
consist  of  Russian  olive,  the  third  and  fourth  rows  of  black 
locust,  the  fifth  and  sixth  of  box-elder  or  ash,  the  seventh 
and  eighth  of  American  elm,  and  the  inner  two  or  three 
rows  of  cottonwood  or  Carolina  poplar,  the  rows  being 
about  eight  feet  apart.  The  Russian  golden  willow  may 
be  used  in  place  of  the  elm,  and  honey  locust  may  take  the 
place  of  the  black  locust. 


Location,  Exposure,  Soils,  and  Windbreaks    27 

The  same  care  should  be  given  to  planting  as  would  be 
taken  in  setting  an  orchard.  Seedling  trees,  two  years  old, 
are  better  in  most  cases  than  large  trees,  as  they  will  bear 
transplanting  more  readily,  are  easily  handled,  and  the 
cost  is  much  reduced.  Trim  off  all  broken  and  bruised 
roots  with  a  sharp  knife,  and  cut  back  the  tops  to  corre- 
spond. Set  the  trees  an  inch  or  two  deeper  than  when 
in  the  nursery,  and  firm  the  soil  about  the  roots. 

As  soon  as  planted,  irrigate,  if  water  is  available.  If  not, 
give  a  shallow  cultivation  to  check  surface  evaporation. 
Cultivation  should  be  continued  during  the  growing  sea- 
son, especially  after  each  rainfall  or  irrigation.  Such  care 
should  be  continued  during  the  first  three  to  five  years,  or 
until  the  trees  shade  the  ground  between  the  rows.  A 
mulch  of  old  straw  at  this  time  may  be  placed  between  the 
rows,  and  will  assist  the  trees  in  keeping  down  grass  and 
weeds. 

Pruning  is  not  desirable,  unless  it  be  so  done  as  to  cause 
a  thicker  growth.  Thus,  in  the  case  of  the  willow,  many 
smaller  stems  may  be  secured  by  cutting  out  the  main 
trunk  a  foot  or  so  above  the  ground  when  four  or  five  years 
old.  In  this  way  a  single,  or,  better  still,  a  double  row  of 
willows,  closely  planted,  may  be  used  as  a  hedge,  which 
will  also  serve  as  a  very  effective  windbreak. 


CHAPTER  III 
PREPARATION  OF  LAND  FOR  PLANTING 

A  STUDY  of  the  preceding  chapter  has  at  least  suggested 
to  the  reader  that  there  is  variation  in  types  of  soil  found 
in  our  Western  mountainous  regions;  and  in  presenting  a 
chapter  on  the  preparation  of  the  land  for  planting  it  must 
be  realized  that  it  is  impossible  to  lay  down  a  set  of  rules 
that  will  fit  all  cases.  That  the  formation  of  the  soil 
varies  is  not  so  surprising  as  that  it  varies  in  unexpectedly 
small  areas,  a  condition  of  affairs  that  is  not  so  commonly 
met  on  the  plains.  The  foregoing  chapter  has  suggested 
important  points  to  be  observed  in  choosing  land  for  or- 
chard purposes;  if  in  this  chapter  we  mention  methods  of 
handling  types  of  soil  that  are  there  classed  as  undesirable 
for  orchard  purposes,  it  is  not  because  we  are  divided  in  our 
opinions;  but  we  realize  that  in  the  eagerness  to  plant 
orchards,  some  of  the  warnings  of  the  previous  chapter  will 
be  disregarded,  and  suggestions  on  handling  all  types  of 
land  will  be  timely. 

The  type  of  soil  will,  in  a  way,  dictate  the  course  to  be 
pursued  in  preparing  it  for  the  young  orchard;  but  there 
is  one  maxim  that  will  hold  good  in  all  cases,  and  that  is, 
"what  is  worth  doing  at  all  is  worth  doing  well."  Too 
often  the  orchard  is  marked  for  life  by  being  planted  on 
land  improperly  prepared;  as  improperly  leveled  or  plowed, 
or,  as  sometimes  occurs,  plowed  only  where  the  tree  rows 

28 


Preparation  of  Land  for  Planting  29 

are  to  be  placed.  While  the  majority  of  our  young  or- 
chards have  been  planted  on  raw  land,  it  is  no  doubt  true 
that  best  success  is  attained  by  planting  on  land  that  has 
been  previously  cultivated  and  irrigated.  Men  who  are 
in  a  position  to  make  comparisons  have  intimated  that 
fruit  trees  of  the  arid  region  are  shallow-rooted,  and  if 
this  is  true,  it  can  no  doubt  be  attributed  to  setting  on 
new  land;  the  subsoil  is  dry,  and  the  roots  of  the  young 
tree  seek  the  moisture  supplied  by  the  first  irrigations.  It 
requires  several  years  to  get  some  soils  moistened  to  the 
depth  that  tree  roots  normally  go. 

Orchards  on  raw  land  are  more  difficult  to  irrigate  the 
first  season,  and  as  a  rule  poorer  stands  are  secured. 
From  the  observations  of  several  seasons  it  would  seem 
that,  in  the  long  run,  it  would  pay  to  crop  the  land  at 
least  one  season  before  planting  the  orchard.  The  texture 
of  some  of  our  heavier  soils  and  the  water-holding  capacity 
of  some  of  our  lighter  mesa  lands  would  be  greatly  im- 
proved by  plowing  under  a  good  green-crop  of  some  kind. 
Cropping  the  proposed  orchard  site  for  one  season  with  a 
grain  crop  not  only  puts  it  in  better  physical  condition  and 
insures  a  better  growth  and  stand  of  trees,  but  largely 
does  away  with  the  annoyance  of  releveling  among  young 
trees,  a  condition  that  must  be  contended  with  in  planting 
young  orchards  on  some  types  of  raw  land.  Young  or- 
chards on  alfalfa  land,  properly  prepared,  make  even  a 
better  showing  than  those  on  areas  previously  cropped 
with  grain. 

Settling  and  Leveling 

In  the  arid  regions  there  are  types  of  land  (as  indicated 
in  Chapter  II)  that  settle  from  one  to  three  feet  when  irri- 


30  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

gation  water  is  applied;  such  areas  should  be  thoroughly 
watered  before  an  attempt  is  made  to  level  them.  As  a 
rule  the  higher  knolls  settle  most,  and  leveling  before  set- 
tling often  moves  soil  that  must  be  moved  back  after  the 
process  of  settling  is  completed. 

One  of  the  first  steps  in  preparing  such  land  for  planting 
is  to  plow  furrows  and  run  water  as  high  as  possible  on 
these  high  places.  As  a  rule  they  will  sink  to  a  level  with 
the  surrounding  land;  in  fact,  the  presence  of  these  knolls 
is  often  considered  an  indication  that  the  land  will  settle. 
The  settling  cannot  be  completed  in  a  few  days,  but  the 
bad  spots  will  go  down,  and  future  settling  is  gradual,  and 
seldom  seriously  affects  the  general  lay  of  the  land.  While 
the  settling  may  continue  for  three  or  four  years,  land  that 
has  been  properly  watered  the  first  season  seldom  settles  so 
much  but  that  it  may  be  easily  releveled  without  disturb- 
ing the  trees.  The  soils  that  settle  most  are  those  built  up 
by  a  decomposition  of  shale  and  sandstone,  and  while  they 
generally  lay  comparatively  level,  the  surface  is  more  or 
less  undulating. 

Orchard  land  should  be  well  leveled  before  an  attempt 
is  made  to  plant  it;  leveling  after  the  trees  are  planted 
is  very  unsatisfactory,  to  say  nothing  of  the  difficulty 
experienced  in  watering  the  young  orchard  on  land  im- 
properly leveled.  It  need  not  be  a  uniform  grade  all  over 
the  area,  but  the  grower  should  have  it  in  such  shape  that 
he  can  form  a  definite  plan  for  irrigating  it.  Few  fruit- 
growers go  to  the  trouble  of  going  over  the  land  with  a 
surveyor's  level,  although  it  would  pay  in  many  cases.  We 
have  seen  fields  broken  by  having  a  head  ditch  run  across 
one  corner  when  the  level  would  have  shown  that  the  ditch 


Preparation  of  Land  for  Planting 


31 


could  have  followed  the  border  just  as  well.  Men  who 
are  used  to  it,  however,  can  grade  well  by  eye,  and  find  little 
use  for  the  level.  Several  forms  of  grading  tools  are  on 
the  market,  most  of  them  much  more  convenient  than 
the  common  scraper. 

With  soils  that  wash  easily  and  where  there  is  no  danger 


FIG.  2.  —  Leveling  with  Water. 

of  seeping  lower  lands,  high  knolls  may  be  easily  moved 
to  lower  levels  by  washing  with  irrigation  water.  It  is 
surprising  how  quickly  a  hill  may  be  moved  with  a  small 
stream  of  water.  The  water  is  carried  by  gravity,  or  with 
a  pump,  to  the  highest  point  of  the  hill,  and  when  released 
over  the  side,  carries  the  soil  to  the  low  places,  where  it  is 
caught  by  a  dike.  (Fig.  2.) 

In  grading,  the  important  point  is  to  see  that  water  can 


32  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

be  run  on  all  the  land,  and  that  no  low  places  are  left  with- 
out outlets  for  waste  water.  A  little  care  in  leveling  will 
save  one  much  labor  and  inconvenience  in  watering;  in 
one  case  the  water  will  only  require  setting,  and  in  the 
other  constant  attention.  The  expense  attached  to  start- 
ing the  young  orchard  is  heavy,  and  there  is  a  temptation 
to  set  the  trees  and  do  the  leveling  at  leisure  times  after- 
ward; but  such  a  course  cannot  be  commended,  and  often 
means  disappointment.  The  man  who  makes  a  success  of 
growing  the  young  orchard  is  the  one  who  has  too  much 
pride  to  allow  himself  to  slight  the  work  in  any  way  at  the 
outset. 

Plowing 

Fall-plowing  is  in  many  ways  desirable  for  the  pro- 
posed orchard  site.  The  soil  is  exposed  to  the  action  of 
the  weather,  which  not  only  improves  its  texture  but 
liberates  plant-food.  Fall-plowed  land  settles  well  be- 
fore spring,  and  waters  easily,  while  spring-plowed  land 
is  often  irrigated  the  first  time  with  difficulty.  The 
water  spreads  too  rapidly  in  the  spring-plowed  land,  and 
this  is  especially  objectionable  with  the  heavier  soils, 
as  it  tends  to  run  the  particles  together,  resulting  in 
puddling  and  subsequent  baking.  When  it  is  proposed 
to  plant  crops  between  the  trees,  fall-plowing  provides 
a  much  better  seed  bed  than  spring-plowing. 

Fall-plowing  is  objectionable,  however,  in  sections  fre- 
quented by  heavy  spring  winds,  as  the  finely  pulverized 
surface  soil  blows  easily.  Yet  this  difficulty  can  be 
largely  overcome  by  an  early  spring  discing. 

Land  that  has  been  plowed  in  late  winter  or  early  spring 
should  be  well  worked  down  with  the  disc  and  harrow 


Preparation  of  Land  for  Planting  33 

before  planting,  and  if  this  is  thoroughly  done,  less  diffi- 
culty will  be  experienced  in  the  first  watering.  In  cold, 
backward  springs,  young  orchards  have  been  seriously 
injured  by  a  flooding  of  the  surface  in  an  attempt  to  water 
newly  plowed  land  without  first  working  it  down.  While 
young  orchards  may  be  started  well  on  spring-plowed 
land,  most  men  of  experience  will  agree  that  the  earlier 
the  plowing  can  be  done  the  better. 

The  land  selected  for  the  new  orchard,  whether  raw, 
or  that  which  has  been  in  cultivation,  should  be  plowed 
to  a  good  depth.  The  fact  that  land  has  been  previously 
plowed  and  cultivated  is  often  an  argument  in  favor 
of  more  thorough  preparation  rather  than  a  suggestion 
that  the  work  may  be  slighted.  There  is  no  doubt  but 
that  careless  handling  has  put  some  of  our  heavier  soils 
in  worse  condition  than  they  were  in  their  native  state. 
Alfalfa  land  should  be  well  plowed  if  it  is  to  be  planted 
to  young  orchard.  Turning  the  sod  with  a  good  sharp 
plow  with  an  extra  long  share  will  save  much  labor  in 
killing  out  the  alfalfa  the  first  season,  for  when  once  an 
alfalfa  plant  is  cut  off  below  the  crown,  it  does  not  sprout 
from  below;  but  a  portion  of  a  crown  attached  to  a  tap- 
root is  a  trouble  maker.  When  the  crown  is  severed 
from  the  taproot  and  buried,  it  may  throw  up  sprouts, 
but  a  little  deep  cultivation  soon  discourages  them. 

Some  persons  recommend  the  use  of  the  subsoil  plow 
in  breaking  up  subsoils  that  are  inclined  to  be  hard.  It 
may  be  that  this  tool  could  be  used  successfully  to  break 
up  the  marly  subsoils  of  our  thin  mesa  land  and  loosen 
some  of  the  heavy  soils  that  refuse  to  take  water.  In 
most  cases  it  would  hardly  pay  to  subsoil  the  whole  area, 
D 


34  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

but  subsoiling  a  few  furrows  near  where  the  tree  row  is 
to  stand  could  hardly  be  a  mistake.  It  would  aid  the 
water  in  reaching  the  dry  subsoil  and  encourage  deeper 
rooting  of  the  young  trees. 

In  extreme  cases  giant  powder  has  been  used  to  break 
up  hard  subsoils,  and  has  apparently  given  good  results. 
There  are  only  a  few  instances  in  which  such  a  course 
can  be  recommended,  but  it  is  possible  that  with  some  of 
our  mesa  soils,  which  are  underlaid  with  marl,  it  will  prove 
to  be  worthy  of  trial.  While  one  could  hardly  advise 
the  planting  of  an  orchard  on  a  large  body  of  land  requir- 
ing such  preparation,  it  is  true  that  small  spots  that 
might  be  benefited  or  overcome  by  such  treatment  are 
often  found  in  large  bodies  of  good  orchard  land,  and  rather 
than  have  a  break  in  the  orchard  plot  it  may  be  well  to 
attempt  to  correct  the  fault  by  breaking  up  the  subsoil. 
To  apply  this  treatment,  a  bar  is  driven  down  where 
the  tree  is  to  stand,  and  a  charge  of  dynamite,  heavy 
enough  to  lift  all  the  soil  above  it,  is  placed  three  feet 
below  the  surface. 


CHAPTER    IV 
PLANNING  AND  PLANTING   THE  ORCHARD 

ONE  of  the  first  problems  in  projecting  the  orchard  is 
to  decide  what  kind  of  fruit  to  grow.  In  planting  the 
commercial  orchard,  the  grower  must  escape  from  his  old 
idea  of  the  home  orchard,  where  everything  was  supposed 
to  grow,  and  be  content  with  a  few  varieties  of  possibly 
one  kind  of  fruit.  We  hear  on  every  hand  that  this  is  a 
day  of  specialists,  and  the  fruit-growing  industry  is  no 
exception.  The  scientific  as  well  as  the  practical  farmer 
advises  diversified  farming,  the  rotation  of  crops  being 
conceded  to  be  the  simplest  and  most  economical  method 
of  maintaining  the  fertility  of  the  soil;  but  in  fruit-grow- 
ing, where  the  ordinary  rotation  of  crops  is  out  of  the 
question,  the  orchardist  has  learned  that  it  is  more  profit- 
able to  do  one  thing  and  to  do  it  welL  General  farming 
and  fruit-growing  do  not  go  well  together,  and  the  pro- 
miscuous growing  of  fruit  harmonizes  little  better.  How- 
ever, the  man  who  is  capable  and  in  position  to  handle 
an  apple,  peach,  and  pear  plantation  probably  reaps  a 
more  uniform  annual  return  than  the  one  who  stakes 
all  on  one  of  the  three.  That  few  men  are  capable  of 
handling  large  orchards  is  a  fact  worth  remembering, 
and  large  orchard  enterprises  must  be  promoted  cau- 

35 


36  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

tiously.  The  men  who  are  making  the  most  money  in 
our  best  fruit  regions  are  those  handling  ten-  and  twenty- 
acre  orchards. 

The  chapter  on  "  Location,  Exposure,  Soils,  and  Wind- 
breaks "  has  been  introduced  not  alone  with  the  idea  of 
helping  the  fruit-grower  to  choose  orchard  localities,  but 
to  provide  help  in  solving  the  problem  as  to  what  kind  of 
fruit  to  grow.  The  chapter  has  suggested  that  certain 
types  of  soil  are  best  adapted  to  growing  particular  kinds  of 
fruit,  and  it  has  mentioned  sites  and  locations  suitable 
for  growing  fruits  that  frequently  suffer  from  untimely 
frosts. 

In  a  way,  the  size  of  the  orchard  will  determine  what 
shall  be  planted.  It  is  easier  to  handle  —  at  least  to  har- 
vest and  market  —  ten  acres  of  peaches  and  ten  acres 
of  apples  than  to  harvest  and  market  twenty  acres  of 
peaches;  and,  as  far  as  it  is  practicable,  the  orchard  should 
be  planned  with  the  idea  of  handling  the  maximum  amount 
of  fruit  with  the  minimum  force  of  help.  Unless  the 
locality  seldom  suffers  from  late  frosts,  the  fruit-grower 
cannot  afford  to  plant  peaches  alone;  and  where  the 
peach  crop  is  uncertain,  there  is  surely  more  money  in 
growing  apples  and  pears. 

What  fruit  one  shall  grow  is  often  determined  by  the 
distance  from  a  shipping  point.  Peaches  cannot  be  hauled 
by  wagon  over  any  great  distance,  and  this  one  factor 
may  make  an  apple-growing  district  of  a  natural  peach 
region.  The  questions  of  help  and  transportation  must 
also  be  considered,  for  these  are  more  serious  problems 
in  peach-growing  than  in  apple-growing;  peaches  must 
be  handled  promptly,  and  delay  generally  means  loss. 


Planning  and  Planting  the  Orchard  37 

Varieties 

The  man  who  must  sell  his  fruit  through  cooperative 
associations  or  commission  houses,  has  learned  that  he 
must  confine  himself  to  a  few  recognized  commercial 
varieties,  for,  to  sell  to  the  best  advantage,  he  must  have 
quantity  as  well  as  quality.  All  things  considered,  the 
orchard  with  a  few  varieties  is  more  easily  cared  for  and 
the  crop  more  easily  handled.  The  grower  who  lives  near 
a  large  city  where  he  can  sell  his  fruit  directly  to  the  con- 
sumer or  the  marketmen,  may  adhere  to  the  old  type  of 
orchard  with  a  varied  assortment  of  fruits  and  a  succes- 
sion of  varieties;  but  the  grower  more  distant  from  his 
market  cannot  hope  to  make  a  financial  success  of  the 
ten-acre  orchard  planted  with  the  idea  of  furnishing  him 
employment  the  year  around  and  a  continuous  picking 
season.  The  length  of  the  season,  the  soil,  and  the  de- 
mands of  the  market,  all  have  a  part  in  determining 
what  varieties  should  be  planted,  and  they  will  receive 
further  attention  in  the  discussion  on  varieties  (Chapter 
XV). 

Selection  of  Trees 

The  choice  of  trees  is  a  matter  of  primary  importance, 
and  it  should  receive  very  early  consideration  in  planning 
an  orchard.  It  is  very  often  true  that  the  man  who 
plants  an  orchard  has  only  a  vague  idea  of  what  constitutes 
a  first-class  tree,  but  the  man  is  to  be  pitied  more  who 
knows  a  good  tree,  and  then  plants  a  second-class  one  be- 
cause it  is  cheaper.  Cheap  trees  are  seldom,  if  ever,  a 
bargain;  the  grower  should  insist  on  having  first-class 
trees  and  should  be  willing  to  pay  for  them.  The  question 


38  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

of  where  the  trees  are  grown  does  not  seem  to  be  so  impor- 
tant as  some  persons  are  inclined  to  think.  Provided  the 
trees  reach  the  grower  in  good  condition,  it  probably 
matters  little  where  they  are  grown.  As  a  rule,  the 
southern-grown  trees  have  given  as  good  satisfaction  in 
the  West  as  those  grown  in  the  northern  nurseries. 

Provided  the  trees  are  equally  strong  and  clean,  it 
seems  to  matter  little  whether  they  are  budded  or  grafted, 
or  how  they  are  grafted.  Yet  we  often  find  growers  who 
are  prejudiced  toward  one  or  the  other,  and  nurserymen 
who  are  ready  to  contend  that,  on  account  of  their  pecul- 
iar method  of  propagation,  their  stock  is  superior  to 
all  other. 

As  a  rule,  the  budded  stock  shows  less  crown  gall  than 
the  grafted  stock.  The  average  yearling  bud  is  larger  than 
the  average  yearling  graft,  has  a  better  root  system,  and 
with  equal  chances,  makes  a  better  growth  in  the  orchard 
the  first  season.  As  yearlings,  both  the  budded  and  the 
grafted  tree  are  mere  whips,  and  may  be  headed  to  suit 
the  grower.  The  two-year-old  budded  tree  is  generally 
too  large  to  plant,  and,  like  the  two-year-old  graft,  stands 
a  chance  of  having  been  spoiled  by  improper  training 
in  the  nursery.  First-class  yearling  root-grafts  are  very 
satisfactory  trees  to  plant,  although  they  will  not  make 
as  good  growth  the  first  season  as  most  yearling  buds  or 
two-year-old  grafts;  the  root  system  is  not  well  developed. 
Good  " stands"  are  generally  secured  with  the  yearling 
grafts,  however,  and  if  the  purchaser  insists  on  getting 
first-class  stock,  —  trees  that  are  three  feec  in  height,  and 
caliper  better  than  three  eighths  of  an  inch,  —  he  will  not 
be  disappointed  in  the  results.  When  it  is  possible  to 


Planning  and  Planting  the  Orchard  39 

get  a  two-year-old  graft  properly  headed,  it  is  a  very 
satisfactory  tree  to  plant.  With  equal  chances,  it  makes 
as  good  if  not  better  growth  than  the  yearling  bud  during 
the  first  season  in  the  orchard,  and  gives  equally  as  good 
"stands."  Unless  the  purchaser  is  quite  sure,  however, 
that  the  two-year-olds  are  well  headed,  he  should  buy  the 
yearlings  instead.  First-class  one-year-old  budded  trees 
probably  give  as  good  satisfaction  as  any. 

In  the  arid  states,  at  least,  the  age  of  the  tree  at  the 
time  of  setting  seems  to  have  little  to  do  with  the  age  at 
which  the  orchard  comes  into  bearing,  so  that  one  really 
gains  nothing  in  setting  trees  too  large  to  start  well. 

June-budded  peach  trees  from  southern  nurseries  have 
been  extensively  planted  in  some  parts  of  the  inter-moun- 
tain states,  and  have  generally  given  good  satisfaction. 
The  tree  is  rather  immature  and,  unless  carefully  packed 
for  shipment,  the  tops  dry  out  and  the  buds  refuse  to  start 
except  from  near  the  base.  In  buying  such  stock,  the 
grower  should  order  trees  of  good  size,  and  insist  on  their 
reaching  him  in  good  condition.  After  he  receives  them, 
it  is  to  his  interest  to  see  that  they  are  well  handled. 
Should  they  arrive  early,  and  it  be  necessary  to  heel  them 
in  until  the  land  is  prepared,  or  until  the  weather  is  favor- 
able for  planting,  the  greater  part  of  the  top  as  well  as  the 
roots  should  be  well  covered  with  moist  earth. 

The  grower  has  a  right  to  insist  that  his  trees  be  free 
from  insect  pests  and  injurious  diseases.  If  he  orders 
first-class  trees,  he  has  a  right  to  expect  them  to  be  such, 
and  if  he  orders  second-class  trees,  he  generally  takes 
what  comes.  Do  not  expect,  however,  every  first-class 
tree  to  be  absolutely  straight,  or  those  of  all  varieties  to  be 


40  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

of  equal  size;  varieties  vary  in  their  habits  of  growth. 
Do  business  with  the  agent  who  works  your  territory 
annually  rather  than  with  the  itinerant  tree-peddler 
or  with  distant  nurseries  advertising  cheap  stock.  The 
business  of  the  nurseryman  is  not  always  lucrative,  and 
you  can  generally  rely  upon  his  business  ability  to  give  you 
no  more  than  you  pay  for.  Do  not  expect  the  inspector 
to  interfere  with  the  agent  who  attempts  to  deliver  trees 
that  are  not  up  to  grade,  or  stock  that  is  in  bad  condition 
from  causes  other  than  the  attacks  of  insects  or  of  plant 
diseases,  for  that  is  not  his  business.  The  buyer  must 
settle  those  differences  with  the  agent  himself. 

Care  of  Nursery  Stock 

Trees  are  often  delivered  by  the  nurseryman  before 
the  grower  is  ready  to  plant,  and  in  such  cases  the  recipient 
should  know  how  to  handle  them.  '  To  keep  the  trees 
from  drying  out  and,  if  planting  must  be  delayed,  to  keep 
them  in  a  dormant  condition,  are  the  ends  to  be  attained 
in  caring  for  nursery  stock. 

The  stock  should  be  unpacked  as  soon  as  it  is  delivered, 
for  if  stored  in  large  bundles  it  may  heat  and  the  buds 
may  start.  If  the  stock  is  to  be  heeled-in  out  of  doors, 
a  spot  should  be  chosen  where  the  trees  will  be  in  the  shade 
most  of  the  day.  Here  a  trench  is  dug,  and,  after  cutting 
the  bundles  open,  the  roots  are  placed  in  the  trench  and 
covered  with  well-broken  soil,  which  should  be  thoroughly 
shaken  in  among  the  roots.  The  layer  of  trees  should  not 
be  thick,  and  they  should  be  placed  at  right  angles  to  the 
trench  in  preference  to  being  inclined  with  the  trench 
with  the  tops  overlapping.  If  space  will  not  permit  of 


Planning  and  Planting  the  Orchard  41 

spreading  the  trees  out  in  this  way,  the  tops  may  be 
overlapped,  if  the  roots  of  each  succeeding  layer  are  well 
separated  from  the  last  by  plenty  of  earth.  Unless  the 
soil  is  very  moist  and  can  be  well  shaken  in  among  the  roots, 
it  should  be  settled  with  water  and  re-covered  with  fresh 
soil  to  prevent  baking  and  drying  out.  The  trees  may  be 
kept  dormant  longer  by  burying  them  root  and  top. 
Trees  may  be  stored  in  a  cool  cellar,  with  the  roots  packed 
in  moist  straw  or  moss.  They  should  be  frequently 
sprinkled,  and  the  cellar  kept  as  cool  as  possible  by  ven- 
tilating at  night  and  closing  in  the  daytime. 

It  occasionally  happens  that  trees  become  dry  in  tran- 
sit, and  the  grower  is  faced  with  the  question  of  accepting 
them  or  going  without  trees.  It  is  hard  to  say  just  how 
dry  the  tree  may  get  before  it  is  actually  injured  to  the 
extent  that  it  will  not  revive,  but  no  agent  can  force  the 
delivery  of  trees  that  have  dried  to  the  extent  that  the 
bark  is  shriveled,  without,  at  least,  a  provision  to  replace 
those  that  are  lost.  Trees  that  are  received  in  a  shriveled 
condition  should  be  buried,  root  and  top,  in  a  well  mois- 
tened soil  and  kept  there  until  they  regain  their  original 
plumpness.  The  chances  are  that  trees  set  in  a  shriveled 
condition  will  die,  but  we  have  seen  good  stands  secured 
after  freshening  the  trees  as  advised.  The  freshening 
may  be  hastened  somewhat  by  immersing  the  trees  in 
water.  This  question  is  not  discussed  in  defense  of 
the  nurseryman  who  willfully  delivers  his  stock  in  a  care- 
less condition,  but  such  cases  will  arise,  and  knowing  how 
to  lessen  the  seriousness  of  the  injury  may  save  both 
the  nurseryman  and  the  grower  much  inconvenience  and 
loss. 


42  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

Plans,  and  Distances  for  Planting 

The  plan  of  laying  out  the  orchard  and  the  distances 
for  planting  are  points  on  which  growers  do  not  all  agree, 
for  questions  are  involved  that  may  he  considered  personal 
and  not  necessarily  essential. 

All  things  considered,  the  square  or  rectangular  method 
of  planting  seems  to  be  the  most  satisfactory.  It  allows 
of  cultivation  two  ways,  and  where  our  fields  are  mostly 
squares  or  rectangles,  it  is  practically  the  simplest  plan  of 
laying  out. 

Another  plan  is  that  known  as  the  hexagonal  system. 
With  the  trees  the  same  distance  apart,  about  15 
per  cent  more  trees  can  be  planted  to  the  acre  than  with 
the  rectangular  system.  The  trees  alternate  in  the  ad- 
jacent rows,  and  the  rows  are  crowded  together  so  that 
all  adjacent  trees  are  equally  distant  from  each  other. 
The  plan  is  well  illustrated  in  Figure  3.  Set  on  the  square 
30  x  30  feet,  48  trees  may  be  planted  to  the  acre;  with  the 
hexagonal  system,  55  trees  may  be  planted  to  the  acre, 
with  no  spaces  between  adjacent  trees  less  than  thirty 
feet.  While  the  hexagonal  plan  allows  of  planting  more 
trees  to  the  acre,  it  leaves  no  wide  middles.  It  is  not  only 
a  question  of  having  the  trees  far  enough  apart  to  prevent 
their  interlocking,  but  the  middles  must  be  wide  enough  to 
accommodate  orchard  machinery.  The  figure  shows  that 
while  the  trees  are  30  feet  apart,  the  widest  middles  are 
only  26  feet.  If  the  grower  insists  upon  planting  55  trees 
to  the  acre,  leaving  the  rows  30  feet  apart,  and  crowding 
the  trees  to  26  feet  in  the  row  would  probably  be  more 
satisfactory  in  the  long  run. 


Planning  and  Planting  the  Orchard  43 


f 


9  f 


FIG.  3.  —  Hexagonal  Plan  of  Planting. 


44  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

Before  any  definite  plan  of  planting  is  decided  on,  one 
should  get  the  dimensions  of  the  plot  to  be  set,  and  figure 
out  which  way  it  may  be  planted  to  the  best  advantage. 

Distances  for  planting  will  vary  for  different  fruit 
trees,  with  varieties,  and  with  soils;  and  all  of  these 
points  should  be  carefully  considered  in  laying  out  the 
orchard.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  growers 'more  often  make 
the  mistake  of  planting  too  close  than  too  far  apart. 
No  doubt  it  has  been  demonstrated  to  the  satisfaction  of 
most  fruit-growers  that,  on  usual  soils,  few  varieties  of 
apples  should  be  planted  closer  than  30  feet.  On  some 
of  our  lighter  soils  they  may  be  planted  a  little  closer 
without  crowding,  but  a  better -plan  would  be  to  improve 
such  soils  and  set  at  the  greater  distances.  Such  varie- 
ties as  the  Wagener,  Rome  (Beauty),  Missouri  (Pippin), 
Wealthy,  and  Oldenburgh  may  be  planted  as  close  as 
25  X  25  feet  to  good  advantage.  Planting  30  X  30  feet 
may  seem  close  to  some  persons,  but  there  are  probably 
only  a  few  instances  in  the  arid  regions  in  which  more 
space  could  be  recommended  or  utilized.  Fruit-trees  in 
the  inter-mountain  country  are  more  inclined  to  overbear 
than  to  overgrow,  and  to  keep  them  well  pruned  and 
within  bounds  is  not  only  beneficial  to  the  tree  but  it  is 
an  advantage  to  the  grower,  as  most  orchard  opera- 
tions are  facilitated  thereby. 

To  allow  of  proper  pruning  and  the  full  development  of 
the  tree,  most  varieties  of  peaches  should  be  planted  not 
closer  than  20  X  20  feet;  and  when  we  consider  that  a 
ten-year-old  peach  tree  that  has  been  properly  pruned 
should  have  a  spread  of  sixteen  feet,  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  distance  is  not  too  great.  As  many  peach  trees  are 


Planning  and  Planting  the  Orchard  45 

spoiled  because  the  primer  is  not  given  the  room  to  train 
them  properly  as  are  spoiled  by  incompetent  primers. 
It  is  true  that  peach  trees  can  be  grown  when  set  16  x  16 
feet,  but  they  cannot  be  developed  properly,  unless  it  be 
on  some  of  the  lighter  mesa  soils. 

Cherries  should  have  about  the  same  amount  of  room 
as  the  peach.  Some  of  the  sour  cherries  of  the  Morello 
type  are  poor  growers,  and  could  be  planted  closer;  and 
if  some  of  the  upright-growing  sweet  varieties  are  to  be 
allowed  to  take  their  natural  form,  they  may  be  grown 
closer,  but  a  better  plan  would  be  to  give  them  plenty 
of  room  and  spread  the  top  by  proper  pruning. 

If  properly  trained,  pear  trees  will  utilize  all  the  space 
when  planted  twenty  feet  apart.  Some  kinds  may  be 
planted  closer  and  be  allowed  to  grow  in  their  natural 
form,  but  is  it  doubtful  whether  it  is  advisable. 

Both  peaches  and  pears  may  be  crowded  to  sixteen  feet 
in  the  row,  leaving  the  one  wide  middle,  but,  with  the 
peaches,  especially,  it  hardly  permits  cross-cultivation 
after  the  trees  reach  any  size. 

When  planted  on  the  square,  20  X  20  feet,  108  trees 
maybe  planted  to  the  acre;  set  16  x  20,  the  number  will 
be  increased  to  135.  After  forming  a  general  idea  of  the 
plan  and  distances  for  planting,  it  may  be  necessary  to 
modify  them  to  suit  the  particular  piece  of  land  to  be 
planted.  Suppose,  for  example,  that  we  are  planting  a 
square  ten-acre  plot,  and  that  we  decide  to  set  the  trees 
30  X  30  feet;  the  rows  will  contain  22  trees  each  way, 
and  give  a  15-foot  border.  But  with  a  fence  around  the 
orchard  this  border  is  hardly  wide  enough,  and  by  reducing 
the  distance  between  trees  6  inches  each  way,  5  feet  could 


46  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

be  added  to  the  border,  and  we  should  hardly  notice  that 
the  trees  were  any  closer  together. 

A  simple  method  of  determining  the  number  of  trees 
required  to  plant  an  acre,  when  planted  by  the  square 
or  rectangular  plan,  is  to  multiply  together  the  two  dis- 
tances, in  feet,  at  which  the  trees  stand,  and  divide  43,560 
(the  number  of  square  feet  in  an  acre)  by  the  product. 
To  find  the  number  required  for  the  hexagonal  system, 
add  15  per  cent  to  the  number  required  to  set  at  the 
same  distance  with  the  rectangular  system. 

Fillers 

The  advisibility  of  planting  "fillers"  (or  temporary 
trees  between  the  others,  to  be  removed  as  the  others 
mature)  in  the  apple  orchard  has  been  argued  pro  and 
con,  and  it  probably  always  will  be  a  debatable  question, 
for  much  depends  on  the  man  who  grows  the  orchard. 
The  only  objection  the  writers  have  to  planting  fillers 
is  that  they  too  often  become  fixtures.  The  average 
man  lacks  the  courage  to  pull  out  a  tree  when  it  gives 
promise  of  producing  another  crop,  and,  as  a  consequence, 
the  shape  of  the  permanent  tree  is  ruined  before  the  filler 
is  removed.  If  we  were  planting  an  orchard,  we  would 
probably  plant  fillers,  but  at  the  same  time  we  could  not 
advise  every  one  to  follow  our  example. 

If  properly  selected  and  removed  in  time,  fillers  are 
profitable.  Peach  trees  as  fillers  are  probably  as  profit- 
able as  any  in  a  section  where  a  peach  crop  can  be 
relied  on,  and,  if  properly  handled,  they  should  produce 
a  box  of  fruit  the  third  season  with  an  increase  of  two  to 
three  boxes  per  season  for  the  next  three  years,  or  until  it 


Planning  and  Planting  the  Orchard  47 

becomes  necessary  to  remove  them.  Varieties  of  apple 
that  bear  young  may  be  used  as  fillers,  and  such  varieties 
as  the  Missouri  (Pippin),  Wagener,  and  possibly  Rome 
(Beauty)  may  be  made  to  yield  good  returns. 

Fillers  give  best  results  in  the  orchard  laid  out  on  the  rec- 
tangular plan;  in  fact,  it  is  difficult  to  place  fillers  to  advan- 
tage when  the  permanent  trees  are  set  by  the  hexagonal 
system.  With  the  permanent  trees  set  on  the  rectangular 
plan,  the  best  place  for  the  filler  is  in  the  center  of  each 
rectangle,  or  in  the  "diamond,"  as  it  is  sometimes  termed. 
This  doubles  the  number  of  trees  per  acre,  and  gives  all  the 
trees  the  maximum  amount  of  available  space.  Some 
object  to  this  system,  however,  and  prefer  to  plant  the 
fillers  in  the  row,  leaving  one  wide  middle. 

With  the  permanent  trees  30  feet  apart,  apple  or  peach 
fillers  may  stand  in  the  row  from  6  to  7  years,  and  if 
they  are  planted  in  the  diamond,  it,  is  safe  to  say  that 
they  could  stand  2  years  longer.  If  fillers  are  to  be  em- 
ployed, they  should  be  given  the  maximum  amount  of 
available  room,  and  pruned  sparingly  to  encourage  early 
fruitfulness.  The  average  man,  however,  will  have  better 
success  in  growing  crops  in  the  young  orchard  instead  of 
trying  to  secure  an  early  income  from  fillers. 

Interplanting  of  Varieties 

The  interplanting  or  mixing  of  varieties  to  secure  cross- 
fertilization  has  been  widely  recommended,  especially 
in  the  East;  and  while  it  is  doubtful  whether  any  one  is 
willing  to  say  that  it  is  necessary  or  even  beneficial  in 
the  arid  fruit  regions  of  the  West,  it  is  probably  wise, 
at  least,  to  avoid  planting  large  blocks  to  a  single  variety. 


48  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

It  is  a  fact  that  some  varieties  are  poor  pollen  producers, 
and,  while  we  have  not  seen  a  case  in  which  lack  of  proper 
pollination  could  be  proved  to  be  responsible  for  a  poor 
set  of  fruit,  we  are  inclined  to  favor  the  interpl anting  of 
varieties. 

It  is  often  inconvenient  and,  no  doubt,  unnecessary,  to 
alternate  the  rows,  as  some  do,  but  it  is  just  as  convenient 
to  have,  say,  four  rows  of  one  variety  and  then  four  of 
another  variety.  This  arrangement  is  sufficient  to  insure 
perfect  cross-pollination.  It  is  necessary,  however,  to 
plant  together  varieties  with  coinciding  seasons  of  bloom. 
Practically  all  of  our  commercial  varieties  of  pears  bloom 
near  enough  together  to  insure  perfect  cross-pollination, 
and  with  the  exception  of  the  Rome  (Beauty)  and  Rails 
(Geneton),  the  blooming  periods  of  our  common  commer- 
cial varieties  of  apple  overlap  enough  in  normal  seasons 
that  they  may  pollinate  each  other. 

When  to  Plant 

In  many  fruit  regions  the  grower  has  his  choice  of  plant- 
ing either  in  the  spring  or  in  the  fall,  but  in  the  arid  fruit 
sections  of  the  West,  spring  planting  is  really  the  only 
practice  that  can  be  recommended.  Trees  planted  in  the 
fall  do  not  become  well  established,  and  in  the  dry  winters 
the  roots  are  unable  to  supply  moisture  as  rapidly  as  it 
is  being  transpired  from  the  top.  As  a  consequence,  the 
tree  often  dries  out  to  the  extent  that  it  lacks  the  vitality 
to  make  a  good  start  in  the  spring. 

March  and  April  are  the  favorable  months  for  tree- 
planting  in  the  Middle  Western  states.  As  a  rule  the  trees 
may  be  planted  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  in  condition 


Planning  and  Planting  the  Orchard  49 

to  work  in  the  spring;  we  may  almost  say,  the  earliel 
the  planting  the  better.  The  tree  makes  its  start  from 
stored-up  plant-food,  and  any  growth  the  tree  makes 
before  it  is  planted  weakens  it  that  much.  If  it  is  neces- 
sary to  delay  the  planting,  every  effort  should  be  made 
to  hold  the  trees  in  dormant  condition;  and,  if  they  are 
kept  in  this  condition,  good  " stands"  may  be  secured 
by  planting,  even  after  the  orchards  are  practically  in 
full  leaf.  But  the  chances  are  against  the  young  orchard 
planted  late,  and  planting  with  the  opening  of  spring  is 
recommended. 

Methods  of  Planting 

Too  much  care  cannot  be  given  to  laying  out  the  young 
orchard  in  a  neat  and  attractive  way,  and  there  is  much  in 
knowing  how.  If  the  proposed  orchard  site  is  a  square  or 
a  rectangular  plot,  and  the  trees  are  to  be  set  on  the  rec- 
tangular plan,  one  of  the  simplest  methods  of  laying  out 
is  to  establish  the  boundary  lines  and  lay  off  on  two  oppo- 
site sides  the  distances  between  rows,  and  on  the  other 
two  sides  the  distances  between  trees.  These  points  are 
marked  with  stakes  that  can  be  easily  seen  across  the 
field,  and  with  these  points  established,  a  few  more  rows  of 
stakes  should  be  sighted-in  through  the  middle.  Unless 
the  field  is  very  large  or  rough,  two  rows  of  stakes  through 
the  middle  will  be  sufficient  and,  we  may  say,  desirable, 
as  with  four  established  points  any  stake  knocked  down 
in  marking  may  be  reset  without  the  aid  of  a  second 
man  to  do  the  sighting. 

If  the  field  is  irregular,  the  best  plan  is  to  establish  the 
boundary  lines  of  the  largest  rectangular  plot  it  contains, 


50  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

and  proceed  as  before.     Irregular  corners  can  then  be 
plotted  by  sighting  to  stakes  in  the  larger  area. 

In  plotting  the  field  for  hexagonal  planting,  the  only 
difference  is  that  double  the  number  of  points  would  have 
to  be  established  on  the  sides  to  give  the  position  of  the 
trees  in  the  alternate  rows. 


FIG.  4.  —  Method  of  Marking  Land  for  Planting. 

Some  practice  marking  both  ways  with  a  light  furrow- 
ing shovel  attached  to  a  convenient  orchard  cultivator, 
and  then  throw  out  the  rows  with  a  plow;  others  simply 
plow  out  the  rows,  and  then  a  man  cross-marks  the  field 
by  walking  to  the  stakes  and  dragging  a  chain  or  some 
other  convenient  marker  behind  him.  Marking  the 
field  both  ways  gives  all  the  points  for  trees,  and,  with 
the  stakes  reset  to  facilitate  sighting-in  the  trees,  the 
orchard  may  be  well  lined  up.  In  sighting-in  the  trees, 


Planning  and  Planting  the  Orchard  51 

the  setter  should  always  look  ahead  and  line  the  trees 
with  the  stakes  rather  than  with  the  trees  set  behind. 
The  final  test  for  determining  the  accuracy  of  the  position 
of  the  tree  is  to  see  that  it  lines  up  with  the  diagonal  rows. 
Other  methods  of  laying  out,  as  with  a  line,  could  be 
given,  but  most  of  them  are  tedious  if  not  impracticable. 

The  system  that  requires  the  most  work  does  not  al- 
ways give  the  most  satisfactory  results.  Figure  4  shows  a 
large  field  laid  out  by  the  stake  method  and  marked  both 
ways.  Here  fourteen  men  are  shown,  actually  engaged 
in  planting;  two  are  distributing  trees  from  the  wagon, 
six  are  digging  the  holes  and  filling  in  about  the  trees, 
and  the  other  six  are  trimming  and  placing  the  trees. 
These  fourteen  men  set  twenty  acres  per  day  without 
difficulty,  and  set  them  well. 

Trees  should  be  handled  carefully  in  planting,  and  the 
roots  should  be  exposed  to  the  air  no  longer  than  neces- 
sary. If  the  force  of  men  is  large,  the  plan  of  hauling  the 
trees  in  a  wagon,  with  men  to  distribute  them,  is  a  good 
one.  With  the  furrow  method  of  planting,  the  man  with 
the  shovel  may  dig  the  hole,  while  the  other  prunes  the 
roots,  and,  if  he  is  to  be  trusted,  the  top. 

A  very  convenient  method  of  handling  the  trees  when 
setting  with  four  men  or  less  is  to  carry  the  bundles  of 
trees,  with  the  roots  well  protected,  on  a  sled.  A  barrel 
one  quarter  full  of  water  is  placed  on  one  end  of  the  sled, 
and  as  soon  as  a  bunch  is  cut  it  is  dropped  in  the  barrel. 
With  the  sled  between  the  two  rows,  the  two  men  sighting- 
in  the  trees  can  take  them  from  the  barrel.  Root-pruning 
consists  in  cutting  off  the  broken  ends,  cutting  them  all 
back  to  six  or  eight  inches  in  length,  and  possibly  thinm'Dg 


52  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

them  out  a  little.  The  hole  should  be  large  enough  to 
let  the  tree  stand  two  or  three  inches  deeper  than  it  stood 
in  the  nursery.  In  localities  where  strong  winds  affect 
the  growth  of  the  tree,  the  heavier  part  of  the  root  system 
is  turned  in  the  direction  of  the  prevailing  winds.  Where 
the  wind  is  not  a  factor,  the  heavier  part  of  the  root  system 
is  turned  toward  the  southwest.  The  top  may  be  leaned 
to  overcome  the  influence  of  prevailing  winds,  or  to  the 
southwest  to  protect  the  body  from  the  sun.  In  our 
hot  climate  the  trees  show  an  inclination  to  grow  heavier 
in  the  northeast  side,  and  leaning  the  tree  to  the  south- 
west or  placing  the  heavier  part  of  the  root  system  or  of 
the  top  in  this  direction  helps  to  overcome  this  tendency. 
With  the  tree  in  position,  the  fine  top  soil  is  pushed 
back  in  the  hole  and  worked  in  about  the  roots  by  a  slight 
churning  motion  of  the  tree.  In  this  process  the  tree 
will  work  upward  somewhat,  and  the  planter  must  allow 
for  this  in  placing  the  tree.  With  the  roots  well  covered 
and  the  top  soil  slightly  tramped,  the  water  is  turned 
in  the  furrow  to  complete  the  settling.  After  a  thorough 
watering,  fresh  soil  is  thrown  about  the  crown  of  the  tree, 
and  the  furrow  is  left  open  for  a  second  watering  ten 
days  or  two  weeks  later.  After  the  second  watering,  it 
is  advisable  to  fill  this  furrow  and  to  water  from  the  side. 


CHAPTER  V 
THE  ORCHARD  PLANT 

FEW  persons  who  attempt  to  plant  and  grow  trees 
realize  what  delicate  organisms  they  are,  and  still  fewer 
persons  have  a  correct  conception  of  how  plants  take 
their  food  from  soil  and  air,  how  the  crude  food  materials 
are  made  over  in  the  leaves,  and  of  the  other  numerous 
life  processes.  Considering  the  delicate  nature  and  in- 
tricate structure  of  plants  and  the  lack  of  information  on 
the  subject,  it  is  surprising  to  note  the  degree  of  success 
to  which  the  business  of  orcharding  has  attained.  We 
may  well  take  the  time,  then,  to  make  a  somewhat  hasty 
sketch  of  the  make-up  of  the  orchard  plant. 

For  our  purpose  a  tree  may  be  divided  into  three  parts, 
—  roots,  stems,  and  leaves. 

The  Roots 

Roots  serve  the  two  principal  purposes  of  anchoring 
the  tree,  and  thus  holding  it  in  place,  and  of  taking  plant - 
food  from  the  soil. 

The  roots  of  trees  have  a  greater  spread  than  is  com- 
monly realized;  ordinarily  it  is  safe  to  assume  that  the 
spread  of  the  roots  is  greater  than  that  of  the  branches. 
The  length  of  roots  depends  on  the  nature  of  the  soil 

53 


54  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

and  the  amount  of  water  and  of  raw  food  materials. 
Ordinarily  roots  should  penetrate  deeply  in  mountain 
soils  for  the  reason  that  orchard  land  is,  or  should  be, 
deep  and  with  no  hard  subsoil.  But  if  the  soil  is  shallow, 
or  the  moisture  and  supply  of  food  materials  are  largely 
near  the  surface,  the  roots  soon  occupy  the  space  in  spite 
of  the  fact  that  it  is  their  nature  at  first  to  grow  down- 
ward. Those  instances  in  which  roots,  when  very  young, 
grow  upward,  are  very  likely  due  to  poor  cultivation  and 
the  consequent  location  of  the  food  materials  and  moisture 
supply  near  the  surface.  Eventually,  however,  the  upper 
layers  of  soil  are  largely  occupied  with  a  mass  of  small 
roots. 

Roots  may  grow  to  great  lengths  in  poor  soil,  but  in  a 
fertile  soil  they  tend  to  make  shorter  growths  and  to 
occupy  all  of  the  ground.  A  root  of  a  cottonwood  tree 
recently  brought  to  the  writer  was  forty-eight  feet  in 
length  and  only  one  and  one-half  inches  in  diameter  at  the 
larger  end.  This  tree  grew  in  the  mountains  in  a  rocky 
situation  near  a  river  bank.  The  root  pushed  out  laterally 
just  beneath  the  surface,  evidently  in  search  of  water, 
till  finally  a  change  in  the  river  bed  caused  it  to  be  washed 
out. 

All  of  the  elements  of  plant-food,  with  the  single  excep- 
tion of  carbon,  are  taken  into  the  plant  from  the  soil  in 
solution.  The  larger  roots  are  not  concerned  to  any  great 
extent  in  this  process  of  absorption,  but  near  the  end  of  the 
smallest  growing  points  are  the  regions  where  this  process 
takes  place.  Just  back  of  the  growing  tip  is  a  short  zone 
where  minute  and  often  invisible  growths,  known  as 
root-hairs,  push  out  from  the  outer  cells.  These  root-hairs 


The  Orchard  Plant  55 

are  exceedingly  delicate  and  are  of  short  duration.  As  the 
root  increases  in  length,  new  ones  are  formed  and  the  older 
ones  die,  so  that  they  are  continually  dying  and  new  ones 
are  being  formed  throughout  the  growing  season.  (See 
Fig.  5.)  Great  numbers  of  these  organs  are  formed  in  good 
soil  which  is  in  proper  tilth,  and  thus  provide  the  tree  with 
an  immense  absorptive  surface.  These  

•".y*  '  '  ^   *  '        '-"Tr-"' 

tiny  growths  penetrate   in   between   and        |_ 
often  grow  around   the   soil   particles  in  i    /""* 

order  to  absorb  more  readily  the  film  of 
water  which  surrounds  the  particles. 

Such  delicate  structures  as  root-hairs 
are  easily  destroyed,  so  it  is  not  to  be  won- 
dered at  that  nursery  trees,  as  they  are  re- 
ceived by  the  orchardist,  have  lost  all  of 
these  organs.  When  such  trees  start  into 
growth,  they  do  so  at  the  expense  of  the 
food  that  has  been  stored  in  the  tissues,  U 

and  this  drain  must  continue  until  new  FIG.  5.— A  Root- 
root-hairs  can  be  f?rmed.  Untoward  con- 
ditions  of  any  kind,  such  as  extremes  of 
moisture  or  drought,  heat  or  cold,  may  cause  the  death 
of  these  important  organs.  Hard,  compact  soils  ex- 
clude the  air  to  such  an  extent  that  but  few  root-hairs 
develop.  Yellow  foliage  and  a  stunted  growth  are  com- 
mon sjTnptoms  resulting  from  these  conditions. 

The  soil  water,  of  course,  contains  small  amounts  of 

plant-food  materials  in  solution;    usually  not  more  than 

.01  to  .03  per  cent  of  solid  matter  dissolved  in  it.1     When 

the  soil  solutions  contain  as  much  as  2  per  cent  of  dissolved 

1  Percival,  "Agricultural  Botany,"  p.  203. 


56  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

substances,  injury  to  the  plant  may  result.  The  presence 
of  free  water  for  any  great  length  of  time  deprives  the  roots 
of  the  normal  supply  of  air  and  results  in  death.  Soil  is 
said  to  contain  free  water  when  the  spaces  between  the 
soil  particles  are  filled. 

Soil  water  is  taken  up  by  the  root-hairs  by  a  process 
known  as  osmosis.  This  process  may  be  explained  briefly 
as  follows:  When  two  liquids,  one  concentrated  and  the 
other  dilute,  are  separated  from  each  other  by  a  thin  mem- 
brane, there  will  be  a  movement  of  the  dilute  solution 
through  the  membrane  into  the  more  concentrated.  This 
is  the  only  way  that  water  can  enter  roots.  The  cell 
contents  of  the  root-hairs  being  more  concentrated  than 
the  soil  solutions,  the  passage  is  into  the  plant.  Should 
the  soil  solutions  by  any  means  have  the  greater  concen- 
tration, the  movement  would  be  from  the  root-hairs  into 
the  soil,  and  injury  or  death  would  result.  This  is  what  is 
supposed  to  happen  in  those  rather  rare  instances  when 
plants  are  injured  by  alkali.  The  soil  water  dissolves 
these  salts,  and  thus  becomes  more  highly  concentrated 
than  the  cell  contents  of  the  root-hairs. 

From  the  root-hairs  the  moisture  moves  to  the  central 
part  of  the  root  and  on  up  to  the  stem. 

The  Stem 

Did  the  reader  ever  stop  to  think  of  what  use  stems  are 
to  plants,  or  why  they  have  stems  or  trunks  at  all?  We 
know  there  are  various  forms  of  stems,  ranging  in  size 
from  the  smallest  plant  to  the  tallest  tree.  Some  are  thick, 
others  thin,  and  some,  as  the  vines,  require  support. 
Why  all  these  various  forms,  and  what,  indeed,  is  the  need 


The  Orchard  Plant  57 

for  stems  at  all?  The  only  purpose  they  serve  is  to  lift 
the  leaves  up  to  those  situations  where  they  will  receive 
the  maximum  amount  of  sunshine  and  of  air.  In  its 
natural  state  the  grapevine  could  best  do  this  with  the 
support  of  other  plants.  It  can  now  easily  reach  the  tops 
of  tall  trees,  and  is  thus  enabled  to  flourish  in  situations 
where  it  would  otherwise  perish.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
dandelion  has  so  successfully  adapted  itself  to  conditions 
that  it  has  become  a  most  persistent  weed,  and  yet  it  is 
nearly  stemless. 

But  the  crude  food  materials  taken  in  by  the  roots  must 
pass  through  the  stems  or  trunk  to  the  leaves,  and  a  por- 
tion of  elaborated  food  must  be  returned,  even  to  the 
smallest  root,  to  build  up  the  parts.  The  trunk  must 
therefore  be  kept  in  a  healthy,  vigorous  condition,  and  a 
knowledge  of  its  make-up  will  help  one  to  a  more  thorough 
understanding  of  some  of  the  important  horticultural 
operations. 

A  good  idea  of  the  make-up  of  such  a  stem  as  is  found 
among  orchard  trees  may  be  had  by  consulting  the  dia- 
gram shown  in  Figure  6.  This  represents  a  plant  or  a  stem 
at  the  close  of  the  first  season's  growth.  Older  trunks  or 
branches  would  present  much  the  same  appearance,  with 
the  exception  that  there  would  be  as  many  layers  of  wood 
as  there  were  years  of  growth,  and  the  parts  would  be 
more  compact. 

The  central  portion  of  the  stem  at  1  is  composed  of  pith. 
This  was  originally  formative  tissue,  and  out  of  it  the  other 
special  cells  are  formed.  The  pith  may  serve  as  a  storage 
for  plant-food,  but  as  the  plant  becomes  older,  these  cells 
gradually  lose  their  function. 


58 


Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 


The  large  tubes  shown  at  2  form  a  part  of  the  new  or 
sapwood.  It  is  through  these  vessels  that  the  water  taken 
in  by  the  roots  passes  upward  to  the  leaves,  and  they  form 
a  continuous  passage,  interrupted  only  at  rather  long  in- 


FIG.  6.  —  A  Cross-section  of  a  Stem.     (After  Stevens.) 


tervals  by  thin  cross-partitions.  As  the  plant  grows  older, 
these  tubes  become  thickened  or  woody,  and  new  ones  are 
produced,  until  a  more  or  less  solid  layer  of  wood  is  formed. 
After  a  few  years  what  is  now  sapwood  becomes  heart- 
wood,  and  its  activities  then  cease. 

The  peculiar  markings  on  these  vessels  are  thin  places  in 
the  walls,  and  they  allow  water  to  escape.     They  may  also 


The  Orchard  Plant  59 

allow  some  of  the  stored  food  in  the  stem  to  enter  these 
water  passages  in  the  spring  of  the  year,  as  at  this  time  the 
buds  are  swelling,  and  an  extra  food  supply  is  needed  at 
once  in  these  parts. 

Transformed  formative  tissue  extends  outward  be- 
tween the  bundles  of  water-carrying  vessels,  as  shown  at 
3.  As  the  bundles  increase  in  thickness  and  in  numbers, 
they  so  crowd  these  cells  that  they  are  contracted  into 
very  small  space.  A  cross-section  of  any  limb  or  trunk 
shows  these  flattened  cells  as  fine  white  lines  that  radiate 
outward  from  the  center.  These  are  called  medullary 
rays,  and  their  function  is  to  allow  a  movement  of  both 
food  and  water  to  and  from  the  inner,  living  tissues. 

Other  sets  of  vessels  or  tubes  are  shown  at  4  on  the 
inner  side  of  the  bark.  These  are  not  so  large  as  the  water 
vessels,  neither  are  they  so  nearly  continuous  in  their 
connection.  These  are  known  as  sieve  tubes,  and  their 
function  is  to  carry  food  that  has  been  elaborated  in  the 
leaves,  in  either  direction,  wherever  the  demands  of  growth 
require. 

The  cambium  or  growing  layer  is  shown  at  5.  This 
is  composed  of  a  narrow  zone  of  small  cells,  out  of  which 
the  water  vessels  and  eventually  wood  are  formed  on  the 
inner  side  and  sieve-tubes  and  the  several  layers  that  com- 
pose the  bark  on  the  outer  side.  This  is  the  only  region  in 
the  entire  stem  or  trunk  in  which  growth  is  possible  in 
orchard  plants. 

The  bark  does  not  ordinarily  increase  in  thickness  to 
any  great  extent.  The  outer  layers  serve  as  a  protection 
to  the  delicate  tissues  within.  As  a  new  layer  is  formed 
each  season  from  the  outer  cambium  layer,  the  outer  layers 


60  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

of  bark,  when  dead,  are  split  by  pressure  from  within,  and 
gradually  drop  off. 

We  can  now  understand  how  the  trunks  of  all  tree  fruits 
with  which  our  orchardists  have  to  deal  increase  in  size  by 
the  growth  of  a  ring  of  wood  each  year  just  beneath  the 
bark.  By  counting  the  rings,  one  may  determine  the  age 
of  a  tree  with  a  fair  degree  of  accuracy.  As  the  tree  grows 
older,  the  inner  wood  becomes  inactive,  and  so  takes  but 
little  part  in  the  life  processes.  This  accounts  for  the  fact 
that  a  hollow  tree  —  a  mere  shell  of  a  trunk  —  may  live 
as  long  as  though  it  were  perfectly  sound,  if  the  tree  does 
not  break  down. 

It  is  a  common  notion  that  the  split  made  in  limbs  in 
grafting  will  grow  together,  but  we  can  now  see  that  this  is 
impossible  and,  moreover,  that  the  region  where  a  union 
of  the  stock  and  cion  can  take  place  is  very  small.  This 
necessitates  careful  handling  of  the  parts  to  prevent  injury, 
as  well  as  to  see  that  the  cambium  layers  of  cion  and  stock 
come  into  intimate  contact. 

The  movement  of  sap  up  the  stem  and  the  channels 
may  be  illustrated  by  inserting  a  freshly  cut  succulent 
stem  in  red  ink.  After  a  time  it  will  be  found  that  the 
ink  has  ascended  the  stem  for  some  distance,  and  the 
water  vessels  above  described  are  the  only  parts  which  are 
colored. 

This  furiction  of  the  vessels  of  sapwood  is  also  proved  by 
the  action  of  girdled  trees.  If  a  ring  of  bark  only  is  re- 
moved without  injuring  the  wood,  a  tree  may  live  through 
an  entire  season;  but  if  a  ring  of  sapwood  is  removed  at 
the  same  time,  the  tree  will  soon  die. 

Girdling  or  ringing  a  tree  will  also  illustrate  where  the 


The  Orchard  Plant  61 

tissue  that  conveys  the  elaborated  food  is  located.  If  the 
ring  of  bark  is  taken  from  the  trunk  below  all  leaves  or 
leaf-bearing  limbs,  the  tree  usually  will  die.  This  must 
be  for  the  reason  that  no  food  can  reach  the  roots  from 
the  leaves,  consequently  starvation  of  those  parts  results. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  a  ring  of  bark  is  removed  from  the 
trunk  above  several  limbs,  the  wound  will  usually  heal, 
provided,  of  course,  that  it  is  not  so  large  that  the  sapwood 
is  seriously  injured  by  drying  out.  A  noticeable  swelling 
of  the  bark  occurs  on  the  upper  side  of  the  girdle,  caused 
by  an  excess  of  food,  its  movement  downward  having  been 
arrested  at  that  point.  Advantage  is  sometimes  taken  of 
plants  in  horticultural  practice  in  arresting  the  downward 
movement  of  plant-food  from  the  leaves  by  removing  a 
ring  of  bark.  The  upward  flow  of  crude  material  from  the 
roots  is  not  interfered  with,  but  the  food  that  has  been 
made  over  in  the  leaves  cannot  get  past  the  girdle,  con- 
sequently those  parts  above  this  point  receive  an  excess  of 
food.  This  practice  is  common  in  vineyards  in  some  sec- 
tions, and  some  varieties  of  grapes  may  be  made  to  ripen 
twenty  days  earlier  than  on  unringed  vines,  and  the  ber- 
ries grow  from  one-third  to  one-half  larger.  Earliness  in 
ripening  and  increased  size  is  usually  at  the  expense  of 
quality;  consequently  this  practice  cannot  be  recom- 
mended as  being  worthy  of  general  adoption. 

The  Leaves 

The  biblical  saying  that  "all  flesh  is  grass"  is  true  to  the 
last  degree,  for  there  are  no  living  organisms  other  than 
green  plants  that  do  not,  in  the  final  analysis,  owe  their 
existence  to  the  leaves  of  plants  or  rather  to  the  products 


62 


Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 


of  leaves.  We  have  seen  that  plants  may  be  practically 
stemless,  but  none  of  the  higher  plants  can  exist  without 
leaves,  or  organs  that  take  their  place.  Many  of  the  cacti 
are  leafless,  but  their  stems  have  been  so  modified  that 
they  perform  the  work  of  leaves. 

It  is  in  the  leaves  and  young  green  parts  that  plant-food 
is  manufactured;  the  one  element  of  plant-food  that  is 

taken  into  plants  in  a  gaseous 
state  (carbon,  in  carbon  dioxid 
gas)  enters  through  the  leaves 
and  to  some  extent  through  other 
green  portions;  the  excesses  of 
moisture  and  of  gases  are  given 
off  by  the  leaves.  It  will  be 
seen,  then,  that  the  leaves  are 
the  most  important  organs  in 
the  economy  of  a  plant,  and 
as  such  are  worthy  of  study. 
This  may  be  done  best  by  refer- 
ring to  a  diagram. 

A  cross-section  of  a  leaf  is 
shown  in  Figure  7,  the  upper 
side  being  at  the  top  of  the  figure.  The  first  layer  of  cells, 
at  1,  constitutes  the  epidermis.  The  one  feature  of  special 
importance  in  the  epidermis  is  the  opening  or  stoma  shown 
at  2.  It  is  through  such  minute  openings  that  carbon 
dioxid,  with  air,  enters,  and  through  them  the  excess  of 
water  and  of  gases  is  given  off. 

Since  the  water  solutions  of  the  soil  contain  the  elements 
of  plant-food  in  such  minute  quantities,  a  much  greater 
amount  of  water  must  be  taken  into  the  plant  than  can  be 


FIG.  7.  —  Cross-section  of  a 
Leaf.     (After  Stevens.) 


The  Orchard  Plant  63 

used  in  building  tissue.  This  excess  must  pass  off  through 
the  stomata.  It  has  been  estimated  that  from  15  to  25 
pounds  >f  water  must  pass  through  a  plant  in  order  to 
produce  one  ounce  of  dry  material;  or  to  make  it  more 
expressive,  in  the  formation  of  1000  pounds  of  dry  matter, 
240,000  to  400,000  pounds  of  water  are  used. 

A  German  investigator  calculated  the  amount  of  water 
evaporated  by  an  oak  tree  which  was  about  20  feet  high 
and  which  grew  in  an  isolated  situation.  His  experiments, 
the  results  of  which  are  given  in  the  following  table,  ex- 
tended through  the  growing  season :  — 

TABLE  I.     AMOUNT  OF  WATER  EVAPORATED  FROM  AN  OAK  TREE 

DURING    THE    GROWING    SEASON 

May  (14  days) 1,944  pounds. 

June 57,250  pounds. 

July 63,265  pounds. 

August 47,839  pounds. 

September 38,882  pounds. 

October 37,450  pounds. 

Total 236,630  pounds. 

This  is  equivalent  approximately  to  29,578  gallons. 
This  investigator  also  "found  that  water  evaporated 
during  the  season,  when  considered  with  reference  to  the 
area  of  ground  covered  by  the  tree  top,  was  equal  to  a 
layer  212  inches  high;  observation  had  shown  the  annual 
rainfall  to  be  25.6  inches;  so  that  the  water  evaporated 
from  the  tree  was  eight  times  the  amount  which  fell  upon 
the  earth  under  it."  * 

The  passage  of  air  and  gases  in  and  out  of  leaves  is  an 
equally  important  function  of  stomata.  About  one-half 
of  the  dry  weight  of  a  tree  is  composed  of  carbon,  or  the 
1  Adapted  from  Bessey,  "Botany,"  p.  172. 


64  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

charcoal  that  is  left  when  wood  is  so  burned  as  to  produce 
this  product.  The  air  contains  only  three  to  four  parts 
of  carbon  dioxid  in  10,000,  so  in  order  to  make  1000 
pounds  of  dry  wood,  38,864,193  cubic  feet  of  air  must  have 
been  taken  into  the  plant.1 

Stomata  are  found  in  green  stems  as  well  as  in  leaves,  but 
are  usually  more  abundant  on  the  under  surface  of  leaves. 
In  order  to  do  the  enormous  amount  of  work  that  leaves 
are  called  on  to  perform,  there  must  be  great  numbers 
of  these  openings.  The  apple  leaf,  for  example,  contains 
about  24,000  to  the  square  inch.2 

The  next  thing  one  notices  in  the  diagram  is  that  the  leaf 
is  made  up  of  a  mass  of  irregularly  shaped  cells  with  air 
spaces  between  them.  These  cells  are  largely  occupied  by 
small,  round,  green  bodies.  This  coloring  matter,  called 
chlorophyll,  is  what  gives  the  characteristic  color  to  leaves. 
It  is  in  these  minute  bodies  that  the  transformation  of  food 
materials  is  performed.  The  green  coloring  matter  ab- 
sorbs energy  from  the  sunlight,  and  the  water  from  the  soil 
is  combined  with  the  carbon  of  the  air  to  form  sugar  and 
starch,  and  later,  other  combinations.  The  starch  does 
not  remain  here  long,  but  is  soon  dissolved,  transformed, 
or  combined,  and  passes  through  the  sieve-tubes  to  parts 
where  food  is  needed  or  is  stored  in  less  active  tissue  when 
an  excess  is  made. 

At  3  is  shown  a  leaf  vein.  Veins  are  largely  made  up 
of  a  continuation  of  water  vessels  and  of  sieve-tubes. 
It  will  be  remembered  that  it  is  through  the  former  that 
the  soil  water  passes  up  to  the  leaves,  and  the  sieve-tubes 

1  Adapted  from  Strasburger,  Noll,  Schenck  and  Karsten,  p.  215. 
2 Bergen  and  Davis,  "Principles  of  Botany,"  p.  104. 


The  Orchard  Tlant  65 

s 

transport  the  food  after  it  has  been  transformed  into  prod- 
ucts which  plants  may  use. 

Starch  is  formed  only  during  the  daytime,  and  it  is 
reasonable  to  suppose  that  the  greater  amount  of  sun- 
shine common  to  the  arid  regions  must  result  in  a  larger 
production  of  starch.  This  must  be  one  important  reason 
why  plants  are  more  fruitful  in  the  higher  altitudes. 
Other  and  more  complex  materials  are  produced  at  night 
by  the  combination  of  the  starch  with  the  materials 
brought  in  from  the  soil.  The  uniformly  cool  nights  may 
hinder  this  part  of  plant-food  manufacture,  and  thus  tend 
to  retard  growth,  resulting  in  early  bearing  and  fruitful- 
ness. 


CHAPTER  VI 
BUDS 

MOST  of  the  fruit-trees  with  which  our  orchardists  have 
to  do  normally  make  a  determinate  or  definite  growth 
during  a  season;  the  apricots  and  many  of  the  plums  are 
exceptions.  If  we  examine  the  winter  condition  of  the 
last  growth  made  by  an  apple  tree,  we  shall  find  that  it 
is  terminated  by  a  bud,  and  that  there  are  a  number  of 
side  buds  that  occur  at  fairly  regular  intervals.  Any 
of  these  buds,  either  lateral  or  terminal,  may  be  fruit- 
buds,  as  will  be  shown  later. 

If  we  select  one  of  the  branch-buds  and  pick  it  to  pieces, 
we  shall  find  that  it  is  composed  of  a  mass  of  tiny  leaves, 
those  on  the  inside  being  much  crumpled  and  compacted, 
while  the  outer  ones  are  of  regular  formation.  The  latter 
are  known  as  bud-scales,  and  they  drop  off  soon  after  the 
bud  starts  into  growth.  The  interior  ones  will  form  the 
leaves  of  next  season's  growth;  and  usually  all  of  the 
leaves  which  the  new  growth  of  the  season  will  produce 
are  present  in  miniature  in  the  bud,  the  exact  number 
being  determined  the  season  before. 

One  can  easily  distinguish  between  the  growth  of 
different  years  when  the  branch  is  not  too  old,  or  when 
second  growth  has  not  taken  place,  by  the  slight  bulge 

66 


Buds  67 

that  is  encircled  by  several  rows  of  tiny  scars.  This 
enlargement  marks  the  position  of  the  bud  from  which 
growth  proceeded  during  that  season,  and  the  scars  mark 
the  point  of  attachment  of  bud  scales. 

Since  the  growth  of  an  apple  limb  from  year  to  year 
is  generally  straight,  it  follows  that  shoots  proceed  from 
terminal  buds.  But  terminal  buds  may  also  produce 
blossoms,  or  the  shoot  may  be  broken  or  cut  back  in 
pruning.  In  such  cases  the  new  growth  develops  from 
one  of  the  side  or  lateral  buds. 

All  will  remember  that  leaves  occur  singly  on  new 
growths.  By  a  further  examination  of  these  leafless 
shoots,  we  find  that  at  the  base  of  each  bud  is  a  scar  that 
marks  the  point  where  a  leaf  was  attached.  Buds  and 
leaves,  then,  always  go  together,  and  under  normal 
conditions  a  bud  forms  in  the  axil  of  each  leaf.  In  some 
plants,  as  the  asparagus,  this  is  the  only  way  one  can 
decide  which  are  the  true  leaves,  as  in  this  case  they  are 
mere  scales,  while  leaflike  branches  perform  the  function 
of  leaves. 

The  question  of  what  becomes  of  the  lateral  buds  may 
be  decided  best  by  examining  two-year-old  wood.  We 
notice  here  that  short  branches  have  taken  the  place  of 
some  of  the  buds,  others  produce  flower  clusters,  while 
a  few  remain  dormant.  These  lateral  branches  are  of 
varying  lengths,  some  of  them  being  so  short  as  to  be 
mistaken  for  buds. 

More  than  one  leaf  came  from  the  original  bud  in  the 
spring,  and  now  there  is  formed  at  the  end  of  each  that 
did  not  produce  flowers,  no  matter  how  short,  a  terminal 
bud  for  a  continuation  of  the  branch  the  next  year.  The 


68 


Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 


more  vigorous  lateral  branches  are  usually  well  out  to- 
ward the  end,  while  many  of   those  lower  down    have 

had  a  struggle  to  make 
any  growth  at  all. 

By  examining  still 
older  wood,  we  shall 
find  that  many  of  these 


FIG.  8.  —  Pear  Spur  on  Left,  and  Apple 
Spur  on  Right,  showing  Scars  produced 
by  Death  of  Part  of  Spur. 

short  lateral  branches  are  making  a 
crooked  growth.  Something  has  hap- 
pened to  the  terminal  bud,  and  the 
scars  at  the  end  show  that  a  cluster  of 
blossoms  formed.  This  would  termi- 


FIG.    9.  —  Once    a 
Fruit-spur. 


Buds 


FIG.  10.  —  Opening 
Flower-buds  on  One- 
year-old  Apple  Spurs. 


FIG.  11.  — Missouri 
(Pippin)  showing 
Axillary  Flower- 
buds. 


FIG.  12.  —  Mature 
Jonathan  Ap- 
ples from  Ax- 
illary Buds. 


nate  the  growth  of  the  branch  but  for  the  develop- 
ment of  buds  lower  down.  These  lateral  buds  develop 
branches  that  may  grow  one  or  more  years  in  a  straight 
line,  when  they  in  turn  are  stopped  by  the  formation  of 


ro 


Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 


a  flower-bud.  The  continued  repetition  of  flower-bud 
formation  and  the  consequent  development  of  lateral 
buds,  together  with  slow  growth,  gives 
the  peculiar  crooked  appearance  to  the 
fruit-spurs  of  apple  and  of  pear  trees. 

It  has  often  been  said  that  the  large 
scars  on  fruit-spurs  mark  the  place 
where  a  fruit  was  borne.  One  can  only 
be  sure  that  this  is  true  when  several 
smaller  scars  surround  the  larger  one, 
thus  showing  that  a  blossom-cluster 
actually  existed  at  the  point.  Short 
branches  which  have  borne  flowers  very 
often  die  back  to  the  main  spur,  thus 
producing  a  scar  which  is  evidently 
often  mistaken  for  those  which  are 
produced  where  fruits  were  attached. 
This  is  well  shown  in  the  case  of  both 
the  apple  and  the  pear  in  Figure  8, 
which  is  from  a  photograph. 

All  of  the  -branch-buds  are  alike  in 
the  beginning,  but  because  of  less  ad- 
vantageous position  as  regards  light 
and  food-supply  some  of  them  make 
little  growth.    Some  of  these  restricted 
FIG.    is.  —  Axillary    branches  become  fruit-spurs,  and  con- 
Flower  clusters  of    sequent|y  we  must  conclude  that  slow 

Duchess  Pear. 

growth  is  conducive  to  fruitfulness. 
Once  a  branch  has  become  a  fruit-spur,  it  usually 
retains  this  character,  and  some  of  them  may  be  many 
years  old  and  yet  be  only  a  few  inches  long.  Never 


Buds  71 

theless,  the  bearing  habit  of  a  tree  may  be  easily 
changed,  much  to  the  owner's  disadvantage,  by  severe 
pruning.  If  trees  are  heavily  pruned,  and  particu- 
larly if  a  small  crop  of  fruit  is  borne  the  following  sea- 
son, many  of  the  fruit-spurs  may  be  forced  into  strong- 
growing  twigs.  Figure  9,  from  a  photograph,  shows  such 
an  instance.  There  are  no  fruit-buds  now  present  and 
probably  they  will  be  produced  only  after  two  or  more 
years,  when  growth  becomes  less  vigorous. 

Fruit-buds  of  the  apple  and  of  the  pear  are  usually 
terminal,  but  not  always  so.  Neither  must  the  fruit- 
spur  be  two  or  more  years  old  before  it  may  bear  fruit. 
In  fact,  many  varieties  produce  much  of  their  fruit  on 
one-year-old  spurs  and  on  the  tip  ends  of  twigs  of  the 
last  season's  growth.  (See  Fig.  10.)  Many  varieties 
also  produce  flower-buds  in  the  axils  of  leaves  on  the 
growth  of  the  current  season,  the  same  as  the  peach. 
(See  Figs.  11,  12,  13.)  These  facts  seem  not  to  have  been 
noticed  by  horticultural  writers  and  no  doubt  this  manner 
of  fruit  production  is  uncommon  in  the  East.  But  under 
semi -arid  conditions,  where  the  conditions  under  which 
the  trees  grow  are  most  artificial,  such  fruit  formation  is  of 
common  occurrence.  The  following  tables  show  some  of 
the  varieties  that  bear  fruit-buds  in  the  axils  of  leaves  and 
on  one-year-old  spurs;  also  the  relation  of  such  character- 
istics to  annual  bearing. 

Table  II,  showing  varieties  of  apples  that  produce  blossom-buds, 
on  one-year-old  spurs,  on  the  ends  of  one-year-old  spurs,  terminal 
growths  other  than  spurs,  from  the  axils  of  leaves  on  the  previous 
season's  growth,  and  whether  they  are  annual  bearers :  — 


72 


Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 


VARIETY  OP  APPLE 

BLOOM  ON 
ONE-YEAR- 
OLD  SPURS 

BLOOM  ON 
END  OF  LAST 
YEAR'S  TER- 
MINAL 
GROWTHS 
NOT  SPURS 

BLOOM  IN 
AXILLARY 
BUDS  ON 
LAST  YEAR'S 
GROWTH 

ANNUAL 
BEARER 

Arkansas. 

No 

No 

No 

No 

Astrachan    .     .     . 

Yes 

No 

No 

No 

Bellflower     .     .     . 

Few 

No 

Few 

No 

Ben  Davis    .     .     . 

Yes 

No 

Few,  weak 

No 

Grimes     .... 

Yes 

Yes 

No 

Yes 

Hyslop     .... 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

No 

Jonathan.     .     .     . 

Yes 

No 

Few 

No 

Mann  

Few 

No 

Yes 

No 

Mclntosh      .     .     . 

Yes 

No 

No 

Yes 

Missouri  (Pippin)  . 

Yes 

No 

Yes 

No 

Newton    .... 

Yes 

No 

No 

No 

Northern  Spy  .     . 

Yes 

— 

No 

No 

Rails  

Yes 

No 

No 

No 

Rome  (Beauty)     . 

Yes 

No 

No 

No 

Strawberry  .     .     . 

Yes 

No 

Yes 

No 

Striped  Lawyer     . 

Few 

— 

Yes 

No 

Transcendent   .     . 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

— 

W.  Pearmain    .     . 

Few 

No 

Few,  weak 

No 

Willow  Twig     .     . 

Yes 

Yes 

No 

Yes 

Winesap  .... 

Yes 

No 

Yes 

Yes 

Yellow  Transparent 

Yes 

Yes 

No 

Yes 

Table  III,  showing  varieties  of  pears  that  produce  blossom-buds, 
on  one-year-old  spurs,  on  the  ends  of  one-year-old  spurs,  terminal 
growths  other  than  spurs,  from  the  axils  of  leaves  on  the  previous 
season's  growth,  and  whether  they  are  annual  bearers:  — 


VARIETY  OF  PEAR 

BLOOM  ON 
ONE-YEAR- 
OLD  SPURS 

BLOOM  ON 
END  OF  LAST 
YEAR'S 
GROWTHS 

BLOOM  IN 
AXILLARY 
BUDS  ON  LAST 
YEAR'S 
GROWTH 

ANNUAL 
BEARED 

*\ 

Anjou  .... 



— 

Yes 

Yes 

Bartlett    .     .     . 

— 

Yes 

Yes 

Yes 

Duchess    . 



— 

Yes 

Yes 

Kieffer      .     .     . 

Yes 

— 

Yes 

No 

Sheldon     .     .     . 

No 

— 

No 

Yes 

Buds  73 

The  foregoing  lists  are  very  incomplete,  but  they  serve 
to  show  that  these  methods  of  fruit-bearing  are  not  un- 
common with  the  apple,  and  that  the  pear  may  also 
produce  fruit-buds  in  the  axils  of  leaves  on  the  current 
season's  growth.  Further  observations  will  no  doubt 
change  some  of  these  determinations,  and  will  certainly 
add  much  to  the  list.  It  is  well  known  that  varieties  vary 
in  their  characteristics  in  different  localities,  a  few  miles 
often  being  sufficient  to  show  marked  changes.  These 
notes  were  made  in  Grand  Junction,  Colorado,  so  that  ob- 
servers in  other  localities  need  not  be  surprised  if  their 
observations  do  not  agree  with  these  in  all  respects. 

While  the  capacity  of  a  variety  to  produce  annual 
crops  is  undoubtedly  influenced  by  several  factors,  the 
table  is  of  interest  in  indicating  that  the  characteristic 
of  fruit-bearing  on  one-year-old  spurs  is  conducive  to  the 
production  of  annual  crops.  This  is  as  might  be  ex- 
pected; and  by  examining  older  fruit-spurs  we  find  that, 
when  a  fruit-bud  has  been  produced,  growth  is  stopped, 
and  a  lateral  bud  has  developed  into  a  branch  and  con- 
tinued the  growth  of  the  spur.  This  lateral  is  not  or- 
dinarily terminated  by  a  fruit-bud  that  year,  for  the 
supposed  reason  that  the  energies  of  the  spur  have  been 
depleted  in  the  production  of  flowers,  and  perhaps  fruit 
•as  jrell,  on  the  older  part.  We  learn  from  this  that  fruit- 
spiR,  as  a  rule,  may  bear  fruit  only  every  other  year, 
but  in  reality  such  regularity  is  far  from  being  common. 

Bud-bearing  on  Stone-fruits 

When  we  undertook  to  write  on  the  subject  of  buds, 
it  was  found  that  our  observations  did  not  agree  in  many 


74  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

respects  with  what  has  been  published,  and  one  of  us 
(Mr.  Whipple)  made  a  study  of  the  subject.  These 
observations  on  bud  characters  and  bearing  habits  of 
the  stone-fruits  are  given  below. 

The  branch-buds  of  the  peach,  apricot,  plum,  and  cherry 
differ  little  from  those  of  the  apple  and  pear.  With  the 
apricots  and  many  of  the  plums,  true  terminal  buds  are 
rarely  developed,  while  the  lateral  branch-buds  of  at  least 
the  first  three  may  share  their  position  in  the  axils  of 
the  leaves  with  one  or  more  fruit-buds.  In  the  peach, 
however,  such  a  group  of  buds  is  generally  developed  in 
the  axils  of  a  cluster  of  three  leaves.  When  the  terminal 
bud  is  absent  and  the  last  lateral  bud  is  a  branch-bud,  it 
continues  the  growth  of  the  branch  the  following  season, 
and,  while  the  line  of  demarcation  of  each  succeeding  year's 
growth  (as  shown  by  the  scars  of  the  bud-scales)  is  not 
as  pronounced  as  in  twigs  with  terminal  branch-buds, 
the  continuation  of  the  growth  in  a  straight  line  is  just 
as  perfect.  Quite  often  this  last  lateral  bud  is  a  fruit- 
bud,  and  later  such  twigs  generally  die  back  to  a  lateral 
branch  developed  from  the  last  branch-bud. 

The  fruit-buds  of  the  peach,  apricot,  plum,  and  cherry 
differ  from  those  of  the  apple  and  pear  in  that  they  are 
simple  buds  (each  contains  in  miniature  a  modified  branch 
which  carries  only  flowers,  no  leaves,  or  at  most  only* 
rudiments  of  leaves),  while  the  apple  and  pear  have  i^^ed 
fruit-buds.  As  the  fruit-buds  of  the  cherry  and  plum 
open,  they  often  show  one  or  two  small  leaves  which  rarely 
persist  during  the  full  season  of  fruit  formation.  The 
fruit-bud  of  the  peach  and  apricot  normally  carries  a 
single  flower,  sometimes  two;  that  of  the  cherry  from  one 


Buds 


75 


to  five,  two  the  prevailing  type;  and  that  of  the  plum 
from  one  to  five,  two  and  three  being  the  most  common 
numbers.  With  few  exceptions,  the 
fruit-buds  of  these  four  stone-fruits 
are  developed  laterally  and  in  the 
axils  of  leaves;  occasionally  a  termi- 
nal fruit-bud  may  be  found  in  the 
cherry.  In  the  stone-fruits,  then, 
the  fruit-buds  are  developed  in  the 
axils  of  leaves  of  the  current  year's 
growth  and  the  fruit  is  borne  on  one- 
year-old  wood. 

An  examination  of  the  fruiting 
wood  of  the  peach  will  show  that  the 
fruit-buds  are  borne  singly  with  a 
branch-bud,  or  in  pairs  with  a  branch- 
bud.  (See  Fig.  14.)  With  trees  mak- 
ing a  satisfactory  growth,  the  latter 
is  the  more  common.  Their  position 
upon  the  twig  is  determined  more 
or  less  by  the  general  growth  of  the 
tree;  the  stronger  the  growth  the 
nearer  the  tips  will  they  be  found. 
With  trees  making  a  moderate 
growth,  the  majority  of  the  fruit- 
buds  will  be  found  along  the  central 
portion  of  the  season's  growth  and 
in  pairs,  one  on  either  side  of  a 
branch-bud.  On  twigs  making  a 
weak  growth  they  more  often  appear  FIG  14._Flower.buds 
singly  and  along  the  entire  length  of  of  Peach. 


76 


Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 


the  season's  growth,  while  with  young  trees  making  a  rank 
growth  they  will  be  found  only  scattering  near  the  tips  of 
the  twigs.  Thus,  like  the  apple,  the 
formation  of  fruit-buds  in  the  peach 
is  apparently  incited  by  slow  growth; 
they  are  developed  during  a  period 
when  there  is  least  increase  in  length 
of  the  twig. 

In  its  fruiting  habit, 
the  apricot  is  very  much 
like  the  peach.  Fewer 
fruit-buds  are  found  on 
the  stronger-growing  new 
wood,  however,  and  a 
larger  proportion  on 
short,  spurlike,  new 
growths.  Often  these 
spurs  on  the  apricot  are 
so  short  and  bear  buds 

SO  Close  together  that  We    FIG.    15.  —  Flower- buds  of 

are   liable   to   think    of 

them  as  being  different  from  other  fruiting  wood, 
but  they  do  not  differ  materially.    They  are  simply 
short,  new  growths  bearing  axillary  fruit-buds  gen- 
erally borne  singly,  rather  than  in  groups,  as  is  the 
case   on   the   stronger-growing  new  twigs.      The 
last  lateral  bud  is  a  branch-bud  in  most  cases,  and 
continues  the  growth  of  the  spur  the  following 
season.      Unlike    the    peach,    the    groups    of   buds    are 
developed  in  the  axil  of  a  single  leaf.     (See  Fig.  15.) 
The  different  cherries  are  quite  uniform  in  their  fruit- 


Buds 


77 


bearing  habits.  Few  fruit-buds  are 
found  on  the  stronger-growing  new 
wood,  the  short  spurs  being  the  fruit- 
bearing  part  of  the  tree.  Like  the 
apricot,  these  spurs  are  new  growths 
bearing  axillary  fruit-buds,  and  with  a 
few  exceptions  a  terminal  branch-bud. 
Figure  16  shows  the  type  of  fruiting 
wood  of  the  sweet  cherry.  Below 
each  side  bud  on  spurs  or  stronger 
new  wood  will  be  found  a  leaf-scar, 
and  as  each  spur  is  almost  invariably 
supplied  witn  a  terminal  branch-bud, 
observe  the  absence  of  crooks  noted  in 
the  spurs  of  the  apple  and  the  pear. 
The  figure  also  shows  some  strong 
new  growth,  with  rounded  fruit-buds 
near  the  base  and  the  more  pointed 
branch-buds  near  the  tip;  these  branch- 
buds  will  later  develop  into  fruit-spurs 
like  those  ,  on  the  older  wood  below. 
The  fruiting  wood  of  the  sour  cherry 
differs  little  from  that  of  the  sweet. 
Some  varieties,  however,  produce  many 
axillary  fruit-buds  on  the  long,  new 
growth.  These  develop  into  flowers 
the  following  spring,  and  as  these 
spurs  are  annual  in  duration,  they  are 
shed  at  the  close  of  the  season.  No 
lateral  branch-buds  being  developed,  this  results  in  long, 
naked  branches,  the  only  leaf  or  fruit-bearing  wood  being 


FIG.  16.  —  Flower- 
buds  of  Sweet 
Cherry. 


78 


Fruit-Growing  in  Arid  Regions 


on  the  new  growth  at  the  end.  (See  Fig.  17.)  With  the 
peach  and  the  apricot  the  fruit-bud  is  quite  readily  dis- 
tinguishable from 
the  branch-bud, 
but  with  the 
cherry  the  fruit- 
bud  can  hardly 
be  identified  from 
external  appear- 
ances. After  the 
buds  begin  to 
swell  in  the 
spring,  the  fruit- 
buds  have  a  more 
rounded  or  blunt 


appearance; 

compare  the  f  ruit- 

buds    near   the 

base  of   the  new 

growth    in    the 

figure    with    the 

b  r  a  n  c  h-b  u  d  s 

nearer  the  tip. 
The    plums 

vary     somewhat 

in  their  manner 

of    fruit-bearing, 

but  all  are  alike  in  that  the  fruit- 
buds  are  axillary.     With  some,  the 
development  of  fruit-buds  on  the  stronger-growing  new 
wood  is  quite   common,   while  with  others  it  is  rare. 


FIG.  17.  —  Flower- 
buds  of  Sour 
Cherry. 


FIG.    18. — Flower-buds 
of  Domestica  Plum. 


Buds  79 

Figure  18  shows  the  fruiting  wood  of  the  Silver  Prune, 
and  is  a  fair  illustration  of  the  fruiting  habit  of  the 
Domestica  plums  (commonly  called  prunes).  An  exami- 
nation of  the  tip  will  show  that  the  terminal  bud  is  not 
a  true  terminal  bud,  but  an  axillary  bud.  The  fourth 
spur  from  the  top  bears  a  single  bad,  which  might  be  taken 
for  a  terminal  fruit-bud,  but  it,  too,  is  an  axillary  bud,  as 
is  shown  by  the  leaf-scar  below  it.  The  Japanese  plums, 
locally  represented  by  such  varieties  as  the  Burbank, 
Abundance,  Satsuma  (Blood),  and  the  Red  June,  resemble 
the  apricot  more  in  their  manner  of  bearing  fruit.  The 
fruit-buds  are  still  axillary,  and  like  the  apricot  are  found 
on  both  spurs  and  stronger-growing  new  wood,  commonly 
appearing  in  the  latter  case,  one  on  either  side  of  a  branch- 
bud.  With  some  of  the  plums  it  is  quite  impossible 
to  distinguish  the  dormant  fruit-bud  from  the  branch- 
bud,  while  with  others  they  are  easily  identified.  As 
with  the  other  fruits,  rampant  growth  seems  to  be  adverse 
to  the  development  of  fruit-buds. 


CHAPTER  VII 
PRUNING   YOUNG   TREES 

THE  writers  have  been  impressed,  when  visiting  the 
various  fruit  districts,  by  the  lack  of  knowledge  on  the 
part  of  many  growers  of  the  requirements  of  young  trees. 
No  doubt  a  large  majority  of  our  fruit-growers  have  had 
no  experience  in  the  business,  and  so  have  everything  to 
learn,  and  surely  no  part  of  orchard  management  is  more 
important  than  to  start  the  young  trees  just  right.  On 
this  depends  not  only  the  future  usefulness  of  the  orchard, 
but  in  many  instances  large  numbers  of  young  trees  fail 
to  live  through  the  first  season  for  the  simple  reason  that 
they  are  not  properly  started.  In  several  instances  the 
writers  have  been  asked  to  investigate  the  cause  of  the 
dying  of  newly  planted  trees,  and  on  visiting  the  orchard 
it  was  found  that  the  trees  were  planted  just  as  they  had 
been  received  from  the  nursery.  No  doubt  some  of  them 
had  been  injured  somewhat  by  exposure  and  improper 
care,  but  with  the  best  of  treatment  it  is  difficult  for  the 
mutilated  root  system  of  a  transplanted  tree  to  establish 
itself  and  at  the  same  time  support  a  vigorous  or  over- 
grown top. 

It  is  not  generally  realized  that  when  a  tree  is  taken  from 
the  nursery  row,  a  large  part  of  the  root  system  is  left  in 
the  ground.  The  balance  between  the  roots  and  the  top 
is  thus  destroyed,  and  obviously  a  part  of  the  top  should 

80 


Pruning  Young  Trees  81 

be  removed.  Practically  all  of  the  elements  that  nourish 
and  build  up  a  tree,  except  carbon,  are  taken  from  the 
soil  by  the  roots  in  liquid  form.  This  material  is  car- 
ried in  the  cell  sap,  mostly  through  the  outer  sapwood,  to 
the  leaves  (Chapter  V).  Here  the  crude  food  materials 
are  changed  by  the  influence  of  the  sunlight  and  the  green 
substance  of  the  leaves  to  a  form  that  can  be  readily 
assimilated  by  the  plant.  This  will  illustrate,  briefly, 
how  important  the  roots  are  to  the  plant. 

Much  of  the  elaborated  food  may  be  stored  in  the  cells, 
especially  in  the  fall,  to  be  drawn  upon  at  any  time  that 
the  roots  fail  to  supply  the  requisite  amount.  In  trans- 
planting, the  nursery  tree  is  often  deprived  of  one-half 
or  more  of  its  roots,  and  not  only  must  it  become  estab- 
lished in  the  soil,  but  it  must  produce  a  large  number  of 
new  roots  before  much  new  food  can  be  supplied.  In 
the  meantime,  the  leaves  begin  to  push  out,  and  the  re- 
serve food  and  moisture  may  all  be  used  before  the  root 
system  is  in  a  condition  to  supply  more.  This  will  explain 
how  newly  planted  trees  may  start  into  growth  with  ap- 
parent vigor,  only  to  die  later,  when  the  reserve  food  and 
moisture  is  exhausted.  By  cutting  back  the  tops,  and  thus 
reducing  the  number  of  buds,  this  supply  is  conserved,  and 
thus  the  tree  is  tided  over  the  critical  time  until  root- 
hairs  are  formed. 

Is  it  any  wonder,  then,  that  the  failure  to  cut  back  the 
tops  of  newly  planted  trees  results  in  the  death  of  many 
of  them?  This  is  especially  true  in  the  arid  region,  as  the 
dry  air  and  intense  sunshine  cause  the  young  trees  to  dry 
out  rapidly. 

It  is  also  true  that  many  nurserymen,  as  well  as  fruit- 

Q 


82  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

growers,  are  careless  in  handling  trees  before  they  are 
planted.  Not  infrequently  the  roots  are  exposed  for 
hours  to  the  drying  action  of  wind  and  sun.  One  must 
take  the  chances  of  such  treatment  from  the  nurserymen, 
but  after  the  trees  have  been  received  by  the  grower,  there 
is  no  excuse  for  neglect  in  this  respect.  The  trees  should 
be  heeled-in  deeply  at  once  in  damp  soil,  and  when  plant- 
ing, the  work  should  be  so  arranged  that  the  roots  of  each 
tree  shall  be  exposed  to  the  air  the  shortest  possible  time. 

All  bruised  and  torn  roots  should  be  carefully  removed 
and  cut  back  to  healthy  tissue,  leaving  smoothly  cut  ends 
that  will  readily  heal;  if  this  is  not  done,  decay  is  likely  to 
set  in,  which  may  seriously  injure  the  tree.  Long,  strag- 
gling roots  may  well  be  shortened,  and  any  tangled  mass 
of  fine  roots  should  be  shortened  and  thinned. 

It  would  seem  to  be  almost  superfluous  to  insist  on  the 
importance  of  having  all  nursery  stock  inspected  by  the 
county  inspectors,  yet  there  are  persons  who  try  each 
year  to  evade  the  law  in  this  respect.  There  are  several 
insect  pests  and  plant  diseases  which  are  very  common 
on  young  trees,  all  of  which  may  be  easily  overlooked  by 
any  one  who  is  not  thoroughly  familiar  with  them.  It  is 
quite  useless  to  spend  much  effort  in  pruning  and  caring 
for  diseased  trees. 

The  woolly  aphis  is  such  an  insect,  and  it  is  doing  a  great 
amount  of  damage  in  all  sections.  This  insect  lives  on  the 
roots,  and  is  introduced  into  orchards  almost  wholly  by 
infected  nursery  stock.  When  once  established,  it  spreads 
rapidly  and  is  almost  impossible  to  eradicate. 

Crown-gall  is  a  common  disease  in  many  nurseries, 
and  it  attacks  all  kinds  of  fruit  trees.  It  is  the  worst  kind 


Pruning  Young  Trees  83 

of  folly  to  plant  a  tree  that  has  a  trace  of  this  disease, 
for  not  only  is  the  tree  almost  sure  to  die  before  it  comes 
into  full  bearing,  but  the  infection  may  be  spread  by  the 
cultivator  or  in  the  irrigation  water  to  all  parts  of  the 
orchard. 

A  statement  previously  published  by  the  writers,  on 
the  subject  of  inspection,  will  bear  repetition  here:  "All 
possible  assistance  should  be  given  the  county  inspectors 
in  their  inspection  of  nursery  stock.  In  counties  where 
many  trees  are  being  planted,  sufficient  assistance  should 
be  provided,  so  that  there  will  be  no  possibility  of  any 
shipments  being  overlooked.  And  finally,  some  means 
should  be  devised  whereby  the  importance  of  inspection 
can  be  impressed  on  the  growers,  since,  in  some  instances, 
they  antagonize  the  inspectors  and  hinder  their  work. 
It  is  no  doubt  true  that  the  inspection  of  nursery  stock 
alone,  if  well  done,  pays  many  times  over  for  all  the  ex- 
pense incurred,. even  in  those  counties  which  expend  the 
most  money  in  orchard  inspection."  m 

But  in  those  localities  where  several- hundred  thousand 
trees  are  planted  each  spring,  the  inspectors  are  so  rushed 
with  their  work  that  the  most  careful  men  are  liable  to 
overlook  an  occasional  infected  tree;  therefore  no  grower 
can  afford  to  be  unfamiliar  with  these  common  pests. 
Each  tree  should  be  reinspected  as  it  is  planted,  and  to 
make  the  work  thorough  the  roots  should  be  dipped  in 
water  so  as  to  remove  any  dirt  that  might  conceal  small 
galls  or  a  few  aphids. 

In  this  discussion  it  is  presumed  that  the  planting  is 
done  in  the  spring,  as  this  is  nearly  the  universal  practice 
in  the  arid  region. 


84  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

It  should  also  be  stated  here  that  the  requirements  of 
apple  trees  have  been  foremost  in  mind  in  the  following 
pages.  The  same  principles  will  apply,  however,  to  all 
other  kinds  of  fruit,  with  the  possible  exception  of  the 
peach. 

High  and  Low  Heads;  Sun-scald 

The  proper  formation  of  the  top  is  by  no  means  the  least 
important  reason  for  cutting  back  the  branches  of  newly 
planted  trees.  In  the  first  place,  the  importance  of  low- 
headed  trees  for  this  climate  cannot  be  too  strongly 
emphasized.  Hundreds  of  trees  are  dying  in  all  parts  of 
the  West  because  of  the  exposure  of  the  long  trunks  to  the 
afternoon  sun,  either  directly  or  by  reflection,  from  hot 
dry  soil  in  summer  or  from  snow  in  winter.  Young 
trees  are  especially  liable  to  injury,  which  results  in  early 
death  or  a  weak,  sickly  growth,  from  which  they  never 
recover.  There  is  less  injury  from  sun-scald  in  the  hu- 
mid states,  but  in  those  districts  many  authorities  are 
advocating  lower-headed  trees. 

In  addition  to  forming  low  heads,  there  can  be  no 
question  but  that  it  pays  still  further  to  protect  the  trunks 
of  newly  planted  trees  from  injury  by  sun-scald.  Various 
devices  are  used,  such  as  wrapping  the  trunks  with  burlap, 
paper,  straw,  wood  veneer,  or  by  shading  the  trunk  on  the 
southwest  side  with  a  thin  piece  of  board  set  upright  in 
the  ground.  Whitewashing  the  young  trunks  to  serve 
the  same  purpose  has  come  to  be  extensively  used  in  some 
sections.  Whatever  method  is  adopted,  it  should  be 
employed  soon  after  the  trees  are  planted  and  continued 
in  good  condition  through  the  second  winter,  or  until  the 
shade  of  the  trees  becomes  ample. 


Pruning  Young  Trees 


85 


The  advantages  of  low-headed  trees  may  be  stated  to 
be  greater  ease  in  picking,  thinning,  pruning,  and  spraying, 
and  less  damage  to  trees  and  fruit  from  winds.  Some 


FIG.    19.  —  Low-headed  Trees,   with   Ascending   Branches.     Paonia, 
Colorado. 

growers  object  to  low-headed  trees  on  account  of  the 
greater  difficulty  of  cultivating  around  them,  but  with 
proper  training  low-headed  trees  develop  ascending 


86  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

branches,  as  shown  in  Figure  19.  There  is  not  the  slight- 
est difficulty  in  working  around  the  trees  in  this  orchard, 
whereas  the  branches  on  high-headed  trees  commonly 
droop  after  they  have  borne  a  full  crop  of  fruit,  and  so 
interfere  with  all  orchard  management. 

The  following  extract  is  taken  from  Bailey's  "Prun- 
ing-Book":  "The  relative  merits  of  high  or  low  heads 
for  fruit  trees  are  always  in  dispute.  This  controversy 
is  partly  the  result  of  confusion  of  ideas  and  partly  of 
differing  mental  ideals  and  of  varying  climates.  Two 
factors  are  chiefly  concerned  in  these  disputes  —  the 
question  of  ease  of  cultivation,  and  the  question  of  injury 
to  the  trunk  by  sun-scald.  It  is  the  commonest  notion 
that  short  trunks  necessarily  make  low  heads,  and  yet  any 
one  who  can  see  a  tree  should  know  better.  The  number 
of  the  trunks  which  a  tree  has  does  not  determine  the 
direction  of  the  leaf-bearing  limbs.  This  tree  [referring 
to  illustration]  can  be  worked  around  as  easily  as  it  could 
be  if  it  only  had  one  long  trunk.  In  fact,  branches  which 
start  high  from  a  trunk  are  very  apt  to  become  horizontal 
and  droop.  There  must  be  a  certain  number  of  scaffold 
limbs  to  form  the  head.  If  these  limbs  are  taken  out 
comparatively  low,  they  may  be  trained  in  an  upright 
direction  and  hold  their  weight  and  position.  If  they 
are  started  out  very  high,  they  will  not  take  such  an  up- 
right direction,  because  the  tree  will  not  grow  beyond  its 
normal  stature.  High-trained  trees  are  often  practically 
lowest-headed." 

Form  of  Tree 

The  business  of  Western  orcharding  is  not  old  enough 
to  have  developed  systems  of  pruning  that  may  be  said 


Pruning  Young  Trees  87 

to  be  characteristic  of  the  region.  The  conditions  exist- 
ing in  the  fruit  districts  have  been  so  favorable  for  the 
production  of  fine  fruit  that  the  growers  have  not  felt 
the  need  of  the  finest  development  of  the  art.  We  have 
grown  fine  fruit  whether  we  would  or  no.  But  now  that 
competition  is  more  severe,  and  insects  and  diseases  are 
multiplying,  more  attention  must  be  given  to  methods 
and  systems  of  culture. 

In  training  trees,  one  of  two  ideals  must  be  adopted, 
known  as  the  pyramidal  and  vase  forms.  The  former 
preserves  the  leader,  which  is  made  to  form  a  central 
shaft  to  the  tree.  This  style  has  the  advantage  of  more 
bearing  surface,  as  the  leader  grows  and  in  time  forms 
a  "two-storied"  tree.  The  objections  to  tall  trees  are 
apparent,  and  need  not  be  discussed  here.  But  it  should 
be  mentioned  that  under  our  conditions  some  difficulty 
is  experienced  in  securing  a  good  distribution  of  bearing 
wood.  Some  varieties,  as  the  Gano  and  Ben  Davis,  are 
inclined  to  produce  too  many  branches,  and  because  of 
their  position  they  make  a  weak  growth  and  produce 
inferior  fruit.  Eventually  the  best  fruit  is  produced  at 
the  top  of  the  tree. 

The  leader  is  done  away  with  in  the  vase  form,  and  a 
few  limbs,  usually  not  more  than  five,  are  chosen  to  form 
the  top.  A  more  or  less  open-centered  tree  is  thus  formed, 
but  by  skillful  pruning  this  space  is  occupied  by  branches 
of  bearing  wood.  Very  tall  trees  are  thus  avoided,  but 
what  is  more  important,  such  trees  are  not  so  likely  to  be 
destroyed  by  blight,  as  recently  pointed  out  by  M.  B. 
Waite.  Death  to  trees  results  when  the  blight  germs  gain 
entrance  to  the  trunks  and  larger  limbs.  Such  attacks 


88  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

are  usually  brought  about  by  the  presence  of  small  limbs, 
water-sprouts,  or  fruit-spurs,  which  become  diseased,  and 
which  the  germs  follow  till  the  main  trunk  or  branches 
reached.  Should  the  leader  of  a  pyramidal  tree  be  at- 
tacked seriously  enough  to  necessitate  its  removal,  the 
tree  would  be  ruined,  but  by  having  several  main  branches 
or  trunks,  one  of  them  might  be  spared  without  seriously 
crippling  the  tree.  But  the  protection  may  be  carried 
still  further  by  keeping  the  main  branches  of  the  vase- 
shaped  tree  free  of  all  small  limbs  and  fruit-spurs  which  are 
so  susceptible  to  attacks  of  blight.  In  any  event,  one 
important  essential  with  the  vase-form  training  consists 
in  keeping  the  center  of  the  tree  well  supplied  with  good 
bearing  wood. 

Shaping  the  Newly  Planted  Tree 

The  term  "low-headed"  is  a  relative  one,  but  a  top  may 
be  considered  low  when  the  first  branch  is  30  inches 
from  the  ground.  Some  of  our  successful  growers  prefer 
higher  heads  than  this,  while  others  start  them  lower. 
Our  own  preference  is  for  a  trunk  about  20  inches  in 
height.  But  whatever  height  is  determined  on,  the  tree 
must  be  cut  back,  preferably  just  after  it  has  been  planted. 

Should  the  tree  be  supplied  with  suitable  limbs  at  the 
point  where  the  head  is  desired,  three  to  five  of  them, 
properly  spaced,  should  be  chosen  to  form  the  frame- 
work of  the  tree.  The  others  are  removed.  The  selected 
branches  should  then  be  shortened-in  to  a  sound  bud 
within  12  or  14  inches  of  the  main  stem.  But  ordinarily 
the  lower  branches  are  pruned  off  in  the  nursery,  so  that 
we  seldom  secure  a  tree  from  which  suitable  branches 


Pruning  Young  Trees  89 

may  be  chosen.  In  this  case  the  entire  top  should  be 
removed  without  regard  to  branches,  making  the  cut  a 
foot  to  18  inches  above  the  point  where  the  lowest  limb 
is  wanted.  In  doing  this,  it  is  expected  that  branches 
will  push  out  below  in  sufficient  numbers  so  that  suitable 
selections  may  be  made.  For  this  reason,  strong  yearling 
trees  are  always  preferable  to  older  ones.  Should  suitable 
branches  fail  to  grow,  one  of  the  lower  branches  that 
nearly  always  form  must  be  developed  to  form  a  new  head. 

The  trees  should  be  gone  over  several  times  during  the 
first  summer  to  remove  surplus  shoots,  and  especially 
those  that  push  out  far  below  the  point  where  the  lowest 
branch  is  wanted.  Occasionally  some  of  the  upper 
branches  develop  a  vigorous  growth  at  the  expense  of  the 
others.  These  should  be  headed-back  so  as  to  give  all 
a  chance  to  develop,  otherwise  some  of  the  important 
scaffold  limbs  may  be  found  to  be  very  weak  at  the  close 
of  the  season. 

When  a  branch  is  headed-back,  great  pains  should  be 
taken  to  make  a  slanting  cut  just  above  a  sound  bud. 
A  sharp  knife  is  better  for  this  purpose  than  the  pruning 
shears,  for  the  reason  that  on  small  limbs  a  cleaner,  sharper 
cut  can  be  made.  The  cut  should  be  started  a  little  below 
the  bud,  and  with  one  movement  the  blade  is  brought  out 
jusb  above  the  bud.  This  will  leave  a  small  surface  ex- 
posed to  the  possibilities  of  drying  out,  and  the  wound 
is  not  close  enough  to  the  bud  to  injure  it.  If  the  cut  is 
made  too  far  above,  the  stub  will  die  back  at  least  as  far 
as  the  bud,  and  often  farther.  If  made  too  close,  the 
bud  may  be  so  injured  that  a  stub  is  formed  that  wil] 
die  back  at  least  to  the  next  sound  bud. 


90  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

The  position  of  the  buds  on  the  branches  is  of  consid- 
erable importance  in  pruning.  For  example,  one  would 
not  expect  a  bud  situated  on  the  lower  side  of  a  nearly 
horizontal  limb  to  develop  an  upright  growth  compar- 
able to  one  on  the  upper  side.  In  general,  then,  one 
should  cut  off  the  branches  just  above  a  bud  that  points  in 
the  general  direction  it  is  hoped  the  branch  will  take. 
One  cannot  hope  to  overcome  varietal  growth  entirely, 
but  it  may  be  modified.  By  cutting  to  outside  buds,  the 
upright-growing  kinds  may  be  spread  somewhat,  and  simi- 
larly the  spreading  varieties  may  be  contracted  by  cutting 
to  inside  buds. 

As  soon  as  the  trees  are  planted,  the  top  should  be  cut 
back  as  described  above.  With  yearling  trees  a  profusion 
of  branches  will  be  pushed  out,  the  lowest  of  which  should 
be  removed  or  cut  back  to  one  or  two  buds.  By  the  time 
these  branches  begin  to  grow,  the  roots  are  established, 
and  new  ones  formed,  so  that  an  adequate  supply  of  food 
materials  is  provided.  It  will  be  remembered,  however, 
that  the  plant  cannot  use  these  materials  until  they  have 
been  made  over  into  food  in  the  leaves.  It  is  for  this 
reason  that  a  large  leaf  surface  is  necessary;  and  this  sur- 
face is  also  desirable  to  afford  shade  protection  from  the 
sun. 

The  kind  of  top  which  the  tree  is  to  assume  is  de- 
veloped with  the  first  season's  pruning,  which  should  be 
begun  in  most  sections  not  earlier  than  the  first  of  March. 
If  performed  earlier,  a  longer  time  must  elapse  before  the 
wounds  can  heal,  and  necessarily  the  cut  surfaces  are  ex- 
posed that  much  longer  to  the  drying  action  of  the  sun, 
wind,  and  frost.  It  is  commonly  understood  among 


Pruning  Young  Trees  91 

orchardmen  that  trees  must  not  be  pruned  when  the  wood 
is  frozen.  Pruning  when  the  trees  are  in  this  condition 
often  results  in  bad  wounds  and  the  dying  back  of  branches, 
but  this  result  is  probably  due  to  the  agencies  just  men- 
tioned rather  than  to  the  fact  that  the  wood  was  frozen. 
In  any  case  the  rule  is  a  good  one  to  follow.  Then,  too, 
there  is  always  more  or  less  danger  from  winterkilling 
after  the  time  when  early  pruning  is  done,  so  that  the 
trees  would  need  to  be  gone  over  a  second  time. 

From  three  to  five  limbs  are  now  chosen  to  form  the 
framework  of  the  tree,  which  should  be  cut  back  about 
twelve  inches  from  the  trunk.  The  remainder  are  re- 
moved. If  the  lowest  branch  has  been  taken  out  at 
twenty  inches  from  the  ground,  the  highest  branch  should 
be  at  least  a  foot  above  it;  two  feet  would  be  better.  A 
common  mistake  is  to  cut  trees  back  too  far,  thus  crowding 
the  branches,  as  shown  in  Figure  19.  Neither  were  these 
branches  thinned-out  nor  headed-in  during  the  first  season, 
but  were  all  allowed  to  develop  into  leaders.  This  latter 
mistake  often  results  in  long,  willowy  branches  that  droop 
with  a  load  of  fruit;  and  this  is  the  main  reason  for  con- 
demning low-headed  trees. 

Many  growers  carry  their  pruning  up  to  this  point  suc- 
cessfully, but  fail  to  head-in  the  first  season's  growth,  and 
so  miss  one  of  the  critical  points  in  the  proper  formation 
of  the  top.  (Fig.  20.) 

It  is  a  common  notion  that  the  branches  gradually  get 
higher  from  the  ground  as  the  trees  continue  to  grow. 
The  apparent  gain  in  height  is  due  solely  to  the  increase 
in  diameter  of  the  limbs,  which  soon  begin  to  crowd  if  suffi- 
cient space  has  not  been  left  between  them.  The  centers 


92 


Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 


of  the  limbs  will  always  remain  the  same  distance  apart, 
so  in  forming  the  head  one  should  have  in  mind  what  the 
appearance  of  the  limbs  will  be  when  they  have  attained 
a  diameter  of  six  or  more  inches. 

Second  year.  —  It  may  be  regarded  as  a  rule,  that  when 
a  limb  is  cut  back,  unless   the  cut   is   made  just  above 

a  strong  lateral,  two  or  more 
branches  will  start  near  the  cut 
end,  and  some  of  the  buds  lower 
down  will  develop  into  shoots. 
The  usual  practice  is  to  allow 
two  of  these  to  grow  on  each 
of  the  previous  year's  limbs  to 
form  additional  framework  for 
the  tree.  The  two  chosen 
should  be  some  distance  apart, 
one  at  the  end  and  one  farther 
back,  and  so  placed  that  the 
formation  of  crotches  will  be 
impossible.  They  are  now  cut 
back  from  a  half  to  two-thirds 
of  their  growth,  and  the  laterals 
are  shortened  to  one  or  two 
buds,  so  that  they  may  later 
develop  fruit-spurs  and  also 
shade  the  branches  with  their  clusters  of  leaves.  If  too 
many  have  formed,  some  of  them  should,  of  course,  be  re- 
moved. On  the  other  hand,  if  we  are  to  develop  Waite's 
idea  of  making  the  tree  more  resistant  to  blight,  these 
laterals  should  all  be  removed  and  so  carry  the  fruit-bearing 
wood  farther  away  from  the  trunk  and  main  branches. 


FIG.  20. — Yearling  Whip,  prop- 
erly Headed-back  when 
planted,  but  improperljr 
trained  and  Annual  Prun- 
ing neglected. 


Pruning  Young  Trees  93 

Some  growers  object  to  heading-in  trees  at  all,  for  the 
reason  that  all  of  the  buds  are  likely  to  develop  into 
branches  and  so  the  formation  of  fruit-spurs  is  retarded 
and  the  surplus  branches  must  be  cut  out.  But  it  is 
highly  desirable  that  all  of  the  buds  should  develop,  and 
then  by  heading  them  back  to  spurs,  as  just  mentioned, 
the  formation  of  fruit-spurs  is  largely  under  control  of  the 
pruner. 

Any  tendency  toward  one-sidedness  may  be  corrected 
to  some  extent,  and  open  spaces  filled  in  by  choosing 
branches  that  are  already  growing  in  the  general  direction 
of  the  vacancy.  Then,  by  cutting  to  a  bud  that  is  on  the 
side  toward  the  opening,  such  faults  may  be  gradually 
overcome. 

Third  year.  —  The  framework  of  the  tree  should  now 
be  well  formed,  so  that  it  will  require  less  attention  from 
this  time  on.  Surplus  branches  and  those  that  rub  or 
are  inclined  to  form  crotches  should  be  removed.  Very 
vigorous  growths  should  also  be  headed-in. 

Application  to  pyramidal  trees. — Thus  far  our  discus- 
sion has  been  confined  to  the  shaping  of  open  or  vase- 
formed  trees.  If  a  leader  is  desired,  the  treatment  is 
practically  the  same,  except  that  the  upper  shoot  is 
allowed  to  grow  with  little  heading-in.  Branches  are 
allowed  to  develop  on  this  leader  at  proper  intervals,  using 
the  same  care  as  to  location,  pruning,  and  development 
as  in  the  former  case. 

A  Study  of  Examples 

A  discussion  of  some  photographs  of  actual  experience 
in  pruning  young  trees  will  help  to  review  and  fix  the 


94 


Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 


points  of  the  different  stages.  These  were  second-grade 
trees,  and  were  evidently  three  years  old  when  planted. 
The  lower  laterals  had  all  been  pruned  away  in  the  nursery, 
so  that  the  tops  were  much  too  high  for  this  climate. 
There  was  also  difficulty  in  getting  branches  to  form  at 


21  21  a  216 

FIG.  21.  —  Shaping  the  Top. 


21  c 


suitable  places  from  which  to  make  the  selections  for  the 
head.  However,  the  results  are  much  better  than  if 
the  tops  had  been  left  as  received  from  the  nursery,  as 
is  so  often  done. 

The  trees  in  Figures  21,  22,  and  23  were  all  headed-back 
to  about  24  inches  in  April,  1904.     This  left  them  mere 


Pruning  Young  Trees  05 

stubs.  Had  there  been  any  laterals  below  this  point,  they 
would  have  been  pruned  back  to  single  buds,  so  that 
clusters  of  leaves  might  have  formed,  and  thus  provided 
shade  for  the  trunks.  These  pictures  show  how  the  trees 
looked  in  April,  1905,  at  the  time  of  the  first  pruning. 


22  a  22  6 

FIG.  22.  —  Shaping  the  Top. 


22  c 


No.  21  had  formed  five  vigorous  branches,  No.  22  produced 
four,  and  No.  23  but  two. 

The  five  branches  on  No.  21  were  saved  to  form  a  frame- 
work for  the  tree  and  were  cut  back  to  about  one  foot  in 
length.  These  are  well  distributed  about  the  trunk,  but 
have  the  fault  of  being  too  close  together.  The  lowest 


96 


Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 


limb  might  well  be  double  the  distance  from  the  top  that 
it  now  is.  No.  21  a  shows  No.  21  after  it  was  pruned,  with 
the  idea  of  making  an  open-centered  tree. 

The  objection  also  applies  to  No.  22  that  the  limbs  are 


23  a  23  b 

FIG.  23.  —  Failure. 


23  c 


too  close.  All  of  these  were  saved  to  form  the  framework 
of  a  tree  with  a  leader,  as  is  shown  in  No.  22  a.  The  only 
difference  between  this  and  No.  21  a  is  that  the  topmost 
branch  was  left  longer  than  the  others.  The  pruner  of  this 
tree  is  open  to  severe  criticism  because  he  allowed  three 
vigorous  limbs  to  grow  from  near  the  surface  of  the  ground, 


Pruning  Young  Trees 


97 


These  limbs  could  serve  no  useful  purpose,  and  so  only  rob 
the  other  limbs  of  plant-food.  Such  growths  are  best  pre- 
vented by  pinching  off  the  buds  early  in  the  season. 

Tree  No.  23  failed  to  throw  out  enough  branches  to  form 
a  suitable  top.  The  two  branches  are 
nearly  opposite,  so  that  a  bad  crotch  would 
soon  result.  Both  branches  were  cut  back 
to  the  second  bud,  as  shown  in  23  a  in  the 
hope  of  inducing  dormant  buds  to  push 
out  lower  down. 

Tree  No.  24  shows  one  of  this  lot  of 
trees  that  was  left  unpruned.  Notice  the 
weak,  spindling  growth  and  short  laterals, 
as  compared  with  the  others.  There  is 
small  chance  of  making  a  satisfactory  tree 
from  such  a  specimen,  even  though  it 
should  live.  Such  illustrations  as  this, 
which  may  be  seen  on  every  hand,  should 
prove  to  any  one  that  all  trees  should  be 
headed-back  when  planted,  if  for  no  other 
purpose  than  to  induce  a  vigorous  growth. 

At  the  close  of  the  season  of  1905  the 
pruned  trees  had  made  the  growths  shown 
in  21  6,  226,  and  23  b. 

Pruning  should,  of  course,  be  done  in 
late  winter  or  early  spring,  but  these  trees 
were  pruned  for  the  purpose  of  illustra- 
tion, and  the  results  are  shown  in  21  c,  22  c,  and  23  c. 
Tree  No.  21  has  now  taken  the  form  shown  in  21  c.  One 
of  the  scaffold  limbs  seemed  to  be  superfluous,  so  it  was  re- 
moved, and  the  new  growth,  shown  in  Figure  216,  was  cut 


v 


FIG.  24.  —  Neg- 
lected. 


98  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

back  about  one-half.  The  few  side  shoots  were  cut  back 
to  a  single  bud,  with  the  idea  of  developing  fruit-spurs. 
In  the  season  of  1906,  numerous  branches  should  develop 
on  all  of  these  scaffold  limbs.  As  a  rule,  two  of  the  best 
placed  of  these  secondary  limbs  will  be  chosen  on  each  of 
the  main  scaffold  limbs  to  form  additional  framework. 
The  remainder  may  be  removed  or  cut  back  to  develop 
fruit-spurs,  as  may  seem  best. 

The  form  of  the  tree,  then,  should  be  developed  at  the 
beginning  of  the  season  of  1907,  and  subsequent  pruning 
should  be  directed  toward  retaining  this  shape,  cutting 
back  excessive  growths  and  thinning  and  renewing  the 
bearing  wood. 

The  pruning  of  tree  No.  22  is  much  the  same,  except  that 
a  leader  is  being  developed.  Fig.  22  c  shows  that,  although 
the  top  was  cut  back  the  same  as  tree  No.  21,  the  topmost 
branch  is  developing  into  a  vigorous  central  shaft.  The 
first  set  of  scaffold  limbs  has  been  formed,  and  a  second  set 
is  to  be  developed  at  a  suitable  distance  above.  The  new 
growth  is  to  be  cut  back,  as  has  been  described. 

The  tree  shown  in  the  series  23-23  c  is,  so  far,  practically 
a  failure.  The  severe  heading-in  it  received  in  the  spring 
of  1905  failed  to  make  branches  start  lower  down.  It 
would  have  been  a  better  plan  to  have  inserted  two  or  three 
buds  at  suitable  points  around  the  main  stem  in  June, 
1905.  This  can  probably  be  done  next  June,  but  the 
chance  for  success  is  not  so  great.  Limbs  can  be  developed 
by  this  means  just  where  they  are  wanted,  but  the  average 
person  will  succeed  better  with  trees  that  do  not  require 
such  manipulation. 


Pruning  Young  Trees  99 

Subsequent  Pruning 

The  form  of  the  young  tree  should  be  well  established 
after  the  third  season.  From  this  time  on  the  question  of 
pruning  is  merely  to  retain,  so  far  as  possible,  the  form  we 
have  started,  to  prevent  the  formation  of  crotches  and 
cross  branches,  to  thin  out  an  excess  of  branches  so  that 
sunlight  may  be  admitted  and  the  amount  of  bearing  wood 
reduced  and  renewed. 

One  of  the  peculiar  effects  of  high  altitude,  with  the  ac- 
companying sunshine  on  plants,  is  that  it  induces  fruitful- 
ness  and  early  bearing.  Many  varieties  of  apples  produce 
paying  crops  when  the  trees  are  six  years  old,  and  the  tend- 
ency of  young  trees  to  overbear  annually  is  pronounced. 
We  therefore  are  rarely  obliged  to  prune  to  induce  fruitful- 
ness.  Should  such  an  occasion  arise,  the  following  should 
be  borne  in  mind :  Prune  in  summer  to  induce  f ruitf ulness, 
and  in  winter  to  promote  wood  growth.  This  is  true 
for  the  reason  that  summer  pruning  checks  the  growth 
of  the  tree  by  removing  a  part  of  the  leaf  surface.  An 
injury  of  any  kind  will  have  the  same  effect;  likewise  a 
weak-growing  or  sickly  tree  should  be  severely  headed-in 
while  still  dormant  in  order  to  induce  a  vigorous  top 
growth. 

Thin  out  the  top  every  year.  No  general  rule  can  be 
given,  as  each  tree  presents  a  different  problem.  A  thick 
growth  of  branches  results  in  weak-bearing  shoots  and 
spurs.  And  finally,  when  cutting  back  limbs  on  bearing 
trees,  the  cut  should  be  made  just  above  a  strong  lateral 
wherever  possible.  The  tendency  of  the  sap  will  be  to 
flow  into  the  lateral,  and  thus  prevent  the  formation  of 


100  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

numerous  branches,  which  nearly  always  results  when 
a  so-called  stub  cut  is  made. 

A  number  of  our  best  varieties  of  apples  are  likely  to 
develop  long,  slender  branches  that  may  bend  and  rest  on 
the  ground;  and,  indeed,  it  is  not  uncommon  for  such 
branches  to  break  under  a  load  of  fruit.  Some  of  these 
kinds,  as  the  Winesap,  are  very  liable  to  overbear  periodi- 
cally as  they  get  older,  often  to  such  an  extent  that  the 
branches  are  broken  with  a  load  of  undersized  fruit. 
Such  trees  may  require  two  seasons  in  which  to  recover 
from  the  effect  of  overbearing,  but  the  third  year  the  pro- 
cess may  be  repeated.  A  severe  heading-in  and  thinning- 
out  of  the  branches  would  largely  correct  these  faults, 
and  make  it  possible  for  the  trees  to  bear  annual  crops  of 
fine  fruit. 

The  orchard  man  should  become  well  acquainted  with 
the  habit  of  growth  of  different  varieties,  as  a  few  kinds 
grow  slowly  and  will  not  bear  heavy  pruning.  Others  are 
erect  growers  and  some  are  spreading. 

One  cannot  expect  entirely  to  overcome  such  tendencies, 
but  they  may  be  corrected  to  a  marked  degree.  The 
upright  varieties  may  be  spread  somewhat  by  pruning  to 
the  outside  laterals,  and  the  spreading  kinds  may  be  con- 
tracted by  cutting  to  those  that  have  an  inward  direction; 
and  by  cutting  back  the  vigorous  growths  each  season, 
those  two  feet  and  more  in  length,  the  limbs  are  made 
stocky,  thus  in  great  measure  doing  away  with  drooping 
branches.  However,  we  think  that,  under  our  conditions, 
it  is  advantageous  in  many  ways  to  keep  trees  from  be- 
coming very  tall.  This  can  be  done  only  by  intelligent 
annual  pruning.  In  Figure  25  is  shown  a  photograph  of  a 


•ItS  •       ' :  firwfcgr owing  in  Arid  Regions 

successful  young  Colorado  orchard  that  has  been  severely 
headed-in. 

Thus  far  our  discussion  has  had  to  do  entirely  with  apple 
trees.  The  same  principles  apply  to  most  of  the  other 
fruits,  with  the  exception  of  those,  like  the  peach,  that 
bear  fruit  on  last  season's  wood.  The  pear  is  pruned  much 
the  same  as  the  apple,  as  are  also  the  blue  or  domestica 
plums.  The  latter  should  be  headed  lower,  and  they  re- 
quire much  less  attention  after  the  character  of  the  top 
has  been  formed.  The  sour  cherry  and  red  or  cultivated 
varieties  of  American  plums,  require  almost  no  pruning, 
except  that  the  tops  should  be  kept  very  low. 

Pruning  Young  Peach  Trees 

The  response  of  the  young  peach  tree  to  proper  pruning 
is  even  more  marked  than  that  of  the  apple;  it  seems  to 
have  a  greater  range  of  possibilities.  In  habit  of  fruit- 
bearing,  the  peach  differs  from  the  apple  in  the  fact  that 
its  fruit-buds  are  axillary  and  not  terminal.  The  fruit 
is  borne  on  one-year-old  wood  (Chapter  VI).  As  com- 
pared with  the  apple,  the  development  of  its  fruit-buds 
is  less  easily  influenced  by  overgrowth ;  that  the  tree  will 
stand  more  vigorous  pruning  than  the  apple  is  suggested  by 
its  habit  of  fruit-bearing  and  proved  by  experience.  The 
grower  should  take  advantage  of  this  as  a  means  of  keep- 
ing his  trees  well  within  bounds.  The  excuse  so  often 
offered  for  heading  the  tree  high  no  longer  applies,  for 
experience  has  shown  that,  if  properly  trained,  the  low- 
headed  tree  is  no  more  difficult  to  work  about  than  the 
high-headed  tree  (Figs.  19  and  26). 

The  first  important  step  in  growing  a  young  peach  or- 


Pruning  Young  Trees  103 

chard  is  a  proper  choice  in  nursery  stock.  Either  a  one- 
year-old  bud  or  a  June-bud  is  a  very  satisfactory  tree  to 
plant.  The  yearling  bud  is  the  type  of  tree  grown  in 
the  northern  nursery,  and  the  top  represents  one  season's 
growth  from  a  bud  set  in  August  or  September.  It 


FIG.  26.  —  Low-headed  Peach  Trees,  Mesilla  Park,  New  Mexico.     Photo 

by  Garcia. 

possibly  has  the  advantage  of  being  a  little  stronger  and 
better-matured  than  the  June-bud,  but  it  occasionally  has 
the  disadvantage  of  being  overgrown,  with  head  formed 
too  high  and  the  buds  rubbed  off  below. 

The  June-bud  is  a  product  of  a  climate  with  a  long  grow- 
ing season,  and  is  the  type  of  tree  grown  in  the  southern 
nursery.  The  top  of  the  tree  represents  the  growth  of 
the  remainder  of  the  season  from  a  bud  set  in  June.  It 


104 


Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 


generally  has  the  advantage  of  being  headed  lower,  but 
occasionally,  when  received  by  the  western  grower,  the 
upper  part  of  the  tree  shows  lack  of  vitality.  This  may 
be  a  matter  of  long  shipment,  and  is  probably  due  to  con- 
ditions under  which  the  tree  is  delivered  rather  than  to 
any  inherent  characters. 

The  peach  tree  nearly  always  comes  from  the  nurs- 
ery with  the  head  already  formed,  that  is,  with  lateral 
branches  developed.  The  common 
practice  is  first  to  set  the  tree  and 
then  head-in  the  main  stem  to 
within  18  inches  of  the  ground  and 
the  laterals  to  one  or  two  buds. 
In  the  yearling  tree,  heading  to 
18  inches  may  mean  the  removal 
of  all  laterals  formed,  but  buds  will 
generally  start  from  below  to  form 
a  well-balanced  head.  Leaving 
stubs  of  all  the  laterals  insures  a 
large  leaf  surface  for  the  first  sea- 
son, provides  for  the  protection  of 
the  body  from  the  sun's  rays,  and 
supplies  a  goodly  number  of  strong  limbs  from  which  to 
choose  those  to  form  the  head  of  the  tree. 

The  first  spring  after  setting,  the  pruning  will  consist 
in  thinning  out  the  new  wood  to  not  over  5  arms  well 
spaced  around  the  entire  trunk,  and  cutting  these  back 
to  12  or  even  less  inches  in  length.  Should  some  of  the 
arms  be  inclined  to  crowd  toward  the  center,  cutting  to  a 
good  strong  outside  branch  may  be  of  service  in  spread- 
ing the  tree.  When  pruned  for  its  second  year's  growth, 


FIG.  27.  —  Poor  Head  on 
Young  Peach.  The 
Result  of  Pruning  for 
Fruit. 


Pruning  Young  Trees  105 

the  peach  tree  should  not  be  over  3  feet  in  height  (more 
often  2),  and  the  tree  will  consist  of  a  main  trunk  with  3 
to  5  limbs  from  8  to  12  inches  in  length.  This  is  severe 
pruning  for  a  peach  tree  that  has  made  a  good  growth, 
but  it  will  pay  in  the  end. 


FIG.  28. — The  Same  as  Fig.  27  after  One  Season's  Growth. 

The  second  spring  after  planting,  the  head  will  need 
some  thinning-out  and  cutting-back.  Pruning  the  two- 
year-old  orchard  for  fruit  is  a  common  mistake;  it  is 
impossible  to  prune  such  a  tree  properly  and  leave  fruit- 
buds  on  it.  The  more  rapid  the  growth  of  new  wood  the 
nearer  the  tips  will  the  fruit-buds  be  found;  practically 
all  the  fruit-buds  on  a  two-year-old  tree  that  has  been 


106 


Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 


FIG.  29.  —  Two-year- 
old  Peach  Tree 
well  Pruned. 


properly  pruned  as  a  yearling  will  be  in  the  top  of  the 

tree.  Figure  27  shows  the  style  of  pruning  that  must  be 
adopted  to  leave  even  a  few  of  these 
buds.  With  such  pruning  it  is  impos- 
sible to  grow  a  well-shaped  peach  tree. 
The  result  of  such  practice  is  well 
illustrated  in  Figure  28,  which  shows 
the  same  tree  after  one  year's  growth. 
Note  the  tall,  "  leggy"  tree  with  very 
little  spread.  While  the  tree  may  not 
have  been  an  ideal  two-year-old,  there 

is  no  excuse  for  growing  it  into  such  an  ill-shaped  three- 

year-old.     Figure  29  shows  a  two-year-old  tree  pruned  for 

shape  rather  than  fruit, 

while  Figure  30  shows 

the    same    tree    before 

pruning,  and  Figure  31 

after     one     season's 

growth.     Before    prun- 

ing,  this    two-year-old 

stood  5  feet  high,  after 

pruning  30  inches,  and 

at  the  end  of  the  third 

season  it  stands  6  feet 

in    height.       Compare 

this  broad,  well-formed 

top  with  the  one  pruned  for  fruit.     Had  it  not  been  for 

severe  injury  from  attacks  of  twig  borers,  this  tree  would 

have  made  a  much  better  top  ;  the  figure  shows  many  dead 

stubs,  and  a  close  examination  will  show  that  the  upper 

arm,  as  shown  in  the  center  and  to  the  back  of  Figure  29, 


FlG-  30-  -  Same  as  29  before 


Pruning  Young  Trees 


107 


was  lost  entirely  on  account  of  the  borers  checking  the 
young  growths  as  they  started.  This  is  a  loss  of  prac- 
tically one  third  of  the  top,  and  well  illustrates  the  advan- 
tage of  leaving  the  fourth  arm  which  appears  in  the  fore- 
ground, and  which  must  now  be  developed  to  take  the 
place  of  the  stronger  one  which  came  to  the  untimely  end. 


FIG.  31.  —  Same  Tree  as  Fig.  29  but  One  Year  later. 

In  Figure  31  is  shown  a  tree  after  three  years'  growth  in 
the  orchard  with  sufficient  fruiting-wood  to  produce  a 
box  of  fruit  the  fourth  season,  and  with  this  wood  so 
placed  that  it  may  be  left  without  interfering  with  proper 
formative  pruning.  The  center  of  the  tree  presents  a 
brushy  appearance,  which  is  largely  due  to  a  secondary 
growth  forced  by  the  borers  checking  the  terminals  early 
in  summer.  On  account  of  this  abnormal  growth,  the 
tree  carries  an  unusually  small  number  of  fruit-buds  low 
down.  While  the  spraying  of  the  young  orchard  is  often 


108  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

neglected,  this  tree  should  sound  a  warning  to  the  proud 
possessor  of  a  promising  young  peach  orchard. 

To  secure  the  top  well  spread  and  the  fruiting-wood 
near  the  ground,  it  is  necessary  to  prune  severely  and 
possibly  to  outside  buds  or  branches.  As  a  rule  the  two- 
year-old  tree  should  not  stand  higher  than  four  feet  after 
pruning.  A  tree  pruned  in  this  way  and  kept  growing 
thriftily  will  produce  very  few  fruit-buds  for  the  follow- 
ing year's  crop.  With  moderate  growth  produced  by 
judicious  watering,  the  young  tree  may  carry  a  few  speci- 
mens in  its  third  season  and  produce  a  good  supply  of 
fruit-buds  for  the  following  season.  The  young  tree  will 
do  well  to  produce  a  box  of  fruit  the  fourth  season,  with  an 
increase  of  2  boxes  per  year  for  the  next  7  years.  The 
peach  orchard  will  rarely  more  than  hold  its  own  after 
the  twelfth  year,  but  individual  trees  well  formed  and 
well  pruned  may  occasionally  yield  as  high  as  20  boxes 
of  fancy  fruit  per  year. 

In  pruning  the  peach  trees  set  as  fillers  in  the  apple 
orchard,  a  more  moderate  system  might  well  be  adopted. 
The  second  and  third  spring  prunings  should  be  light, 
hardly  more  than  a  little  thinning-out.  The  extra  amount 
of  wood  left  will  tend  to  check  the  rampant  growth  of  the 
tree  and  encourage  the  formation  of  flower-buds.  While 
it  means  a  sacrifice  as  regards  the  shape  and  profitable 
bearing  life  of  the  tree,  early  bearing  is,  in  this  instance, 
more  to  be  desired  than  long  life.  Peach  trees  set  as 
fillers  should  never  reach  maturity.  Heavy  watering, 
however,  may  counteract  light  pruning,  and  the  grower 
may  easily  defeat  the  purpose  of  the  pruner  by  forcing 
the  growth. 


Pruning  Young  Trees  109 

By  the  end  of  the  third  season  tlie  form  of  the  peach 
tree  should  be  well  established,  and  from  now  on  the 
pruning  will  be  less  severe.  Many  growers,  however, 
still  remove  most  of  the  frui ting-wood  the  following  spring. 
The  top  should  be  cut  back  quite  severely,  but  possibly 
more  small  wood  left  in  the  body  of  the  tree  than  has  ever 
been  left  before.  In  this  and  all  subsequent  prunings 
the  pruner  should  encourage  the  growth  of  fruiting-wood 
well  down  in  the  head  of  the  tree.  While  the  head  should 
be  kept  fairly  open,  this  does  not  mean  that  fruit  cannot 
be  grown  in  the  center  of  the  tree.  Some  go  to  the 
extreme  in  growing  a  head  with  no  central  limbs;  such  a 
practice  is  simply  a  waste  of  space,  necessitating  an  in- 
crease in  the  height  of  tree  to  secure  the  required  bearing 
area. 

The  fourth  spring  the  peach  tree  will  need  considerable 
thinning-out  and  some  cutting-back.  The  idea  should 
be  to  thin  the  fruit  by  cutting  out  the  fruiting  wood, 
with  such  other  pruning  as  will  encourage  the  spreading 
of  the  tree  and  keep  the  fruiting  area  near  the  ground. 
The  tree  is  coming  to  a  point  now  where  it  is  impossible 
to  lay  down  any  definite  rules  for  pruning,  and  the  grower 
will  have  to  depend  largely  on  his  own  judgment;  and 
judgment  comes  only  from  experience  and  close  observa- 
tion. With  four  years'  growth  in  the  orchard,  the  tree 
is  practically  mature,  and  subsequent  pruning  will  be 
discussed  in  general  in  Chapter  VIII. 

The  story  of  the  two  trees,  as  told  by  the  drawings 
taken  from  actual  photographs  (Figs.  27  to  31  inclusive), 
should  serve  to  guide  the  pruner  in  pruning  his  young 
peach  orchard.  The  owner  of  the  first  will  soon  be  pick- 


110  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

ing  from  the  top  of  a  12-foot  ladder,  while  the  owner 
of  the  second  would  be  ashamed  to  possess  one  over  6 
feet  in  height.  The  spread  of  the  second  tree  will  always 
exceed  its  height,  which  means  that  the  angle  at  the  lower 
point  of  a  circumscribed  triangle  will  always  exceed  60°, 
and  should  rarely  exceed  90°. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
PRUNING  MATURE  TREES 

MANY  and  varied  are  the  excuses  offered  by  the  man 
who  owns  an  unpruned  orchard;  he  is  ashamed  of  the 
neglected  trees,  and  tries  to  justify  himself  by  advancing 
what  he  considers,  or  more  likely  what  he  tries  to  persuade 
himself,  is  a  good  reason.  One  holds  that  pruning  is 
little  short  of  sacrilege,  contrary  to  the  laws  of  nature; 
another  tells  of  h  s  fond  recollections  of  childhood,  and 
what  excellent  fruit  he  picked  from  the  old  apple  tree, 
pruned  alone  by  nature;  another  says  it  does  not  pay, 
and  in  his  particular  case  it  does  not,  for  the  chances  are 
that  the  orchard  is  neglected  otherwise.  The  only  excuse 
that  has  any  semblance  of  justification  is  that  of  igno- 
rance, and  that  does  not  excuse  the  man  who  makes  no 
attempt. 

Nature's  object  is  the  production  of  seed,  with  pro- 
vision for  its  distribution,  and  she  is  satisfied  when  a 
cherry  is  produced  with  enough  flesh  to  attract  some 
fruit-loving  bird  that  may,  perchance,  drop  the  seed  far 
from  the  parent  tree.  Man  grows  the  fruit  for  its  fleshy 
parts,  and  tries  to  improve  these  parts,  as  much  by  plac- 
ing the  plant  in  a  more  favorable  environment  as  by 
plant-breeding  and  selection.  The  man  who  has  the  fond 
recollections  of  childhood  would  no  doubt  find  them  only 
childish  fancies,  as  did  the  man  who  returned  to  his 

111 


112  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

childhood  home  to  renew  his  boyhood  coasting  and  found 
no  place  steep  enough  on  which  to  slide.  The  man  who 
cannot  afford  to  prune  cannot  afford  to  grow  fruit,  and 
the  man  who  does  not  know  how  to  prune,  must  learn; 
the  principles  are  not  complicated. 

Physiology  of  Pruning 

To  be  an  intelligent  pruner  one  must  know  something 
of  plant  physiology.  He  should  know  the  effects  produced 
by  pruning  at  different  seasons  of  the  year,  how  to  make 
a  cut  that  will  heal  most  readily,  and  the  influence  of 
pruning  on  the  fruit-bearing  habit  of  the  tree. 

It  may  be  said  that  in  the  inter-mountain  states  the  fruit- 
grower prunes  at  his  leisure,  but  luckily  this  conforms 
rather  closely  to  the  proper  season,  when  looked  at  from 
a  physiological  point  of  view.  It  is  generally  conceded 
that  pruning  in  the  dormant  season  incites  wood  growth, 
while  pruning  in  the  growing  season  promotes  fruitful- 
ness;  and,  since  our  trees  tend  to  overbear,  it  is  logical 
for  us  to  prune  largely  during  the  dormant  season. 

Although  it  is  said  that  pruning  in  the  summer  season 
may  encourage  the  formation  of  fruit-buds  on  tardily 
bearing  varieties,  it  may  have  the  opposite  effect,  unless 
performed  at  the  proper  time,  and  may  cause  late  growth 
and  unfruitfulness.  To  give  the  desired  results,  one 
must  .summer-prune  shortly  before  the  season  of  growth 
ends;  earlier  pruning  starts  new  growth,  while  late  prun- 
ing gives  no  results.  The  benefit  derived  from  summer 
pruning  seems  to  depend  on  the  ability  of  the  orchard- 
man to  prune  at  a  time  to  bring  about  early  maturity. 
In  an  irrigated  section  where  soil  conditions  are  easily 


Pruning  Mature  Trees  113 

controlled,  the  same  end  may  be  more  easily  attained, 
no  doubt,  by  proper  manipulation  of  the  irrigation  water. 

Both  the  season  at  which  the  wound  is  made  and  the 
character  of  the  cut  has  an  influence  on  the  healing  process. 
The  pruner  should  remember  that  all  food  material 
capable  of  healing  a  wound  is  taking  a  downward  course 
through  the  inner  bark,  and  that  to  heal  well,  a  wound 
must  be  in  position  to  intercept  the  downward  flow  of  sap 
from  the  foliage.  When  a  limb  is  to  be  removed  entirely, 
the  cut  should  be  at  the  union  with  and  parallel  to  the 
surface  from  which  the  limb  arises.  When  limbs  are  to 
be  headed-back,  they  should  be  cut  to  a  side  limb  and  not 
to  a  bare  stub.  Wounds  naturally  heal  best  when  made 
at  a  season  when  growth  is  most  active,  but,  with  the 
possible  exception  of  wounds  made  in  early  winter,  and 
subjected  to  a  long  season  of  drying,  the  season  at  which 
the  wound  is  made  practically  has  no  important  bearing 
upon  the  healing  process.  The  grower,  who  has  a  small 
orchard  that  will  permit  of  such  a  practice,  should  delay 
the  pruning  until  as  near  the  opening  of  the  growing  season 
as  possible. 

The  influence  of  pruning  on  the  fruit-bearing  habit  of 
the  tree  has  been  briefly  mentioned,  but  the  following 
pages  will  show  how  a  fruit-bearing  habit  may,  to  a  certain 
extent,  dictate  a  course  in  pruning.  The  fruits  with  which 
this  discussion  has  to  deal  have  two  general  types  of 
fruit-bearing:  from  terminal  fruit-buds  and  from  axil- 
lary fruit-buds  (Chapter  VI).  The  first  type  of  fruit- 
bud  is  well  represented  in  the  apple  and  pear  and  the 
latter  in  the  stone-fruits.  Trees  that  produce  axillary 
fruit-buds  are  naturally  more  prolific  and  require  severe 
i 


114  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

pruning  as  a  means  of  thinning  the  fruit.  In  fact,  a  system 
of  pruning  under  which  the  tree  with  axillary  fruit-buds 
would  thrive  would  cause  the  apple  tree  to  overgrow  to 
such  an  extent  that  it  would  be  rendered  almost  barren. 
The  point  may  be  more  fully  illustrated  by  comparing  the 
peach  and  the  cherry.  Although  both  develop  axillary 
fruit-buds,  they  differ  in  their  fruiting  habits;  the  fruit- 
buds  of  the  cherry  are  seldom  found  on  the  stronger- 
growing  new  wood,  and  severe  pruning,  as  practiced  on 
the  peach,  would  throw  much  of  the  strength  of  the  tree 
into  the  production  of  strong  new  wood  that  would  carry 
very  few  fruit-buds.  We  have  said  that  in  the  apple  the 
type  of  fruit-bearing  is  from  terminal  buds,  yet  many 
varieties  develop  axillary  fruit-buds.  Varieties  that  de- 
velop axillary  fruit-buds  and  bear  terminal  fruit-buds  on 
young  spurs  all  tend  to  overbear,  and  require  severe 
pruning.  To  a  certain  extent,  therefore,  one  can  decide 
for  himself  how  much  to  prune  by  observing  how  the  tree 
bears  its  fruit. 

Treatment  of  Wounds 

The  argument  advanced  in  favor  of  dressing  wounds  is 
that  it  prevents  decay  and  checks  evaporation,  both  of 
which  might  interfere  with  the  healing  process.  While 
in  our  arid  climate  the  first  is  hardly  applicable,  the  second 
should  probably  be  doubly  important.  Yet  the  matter 
of  dressing  wounds  is  not  so  important  but  that  work 
improperly  done  is  worse  than  no  treatment.  A  good 
lead  paint  is  one  of  the  most  satisfactory  dressings  yet 
found.  Rather  a  thick  paint  should  be  used,  and  care- 
less daubing  of  the  surrounding  bark  should  be  avoided. 
Grafting-wax  is  a  good  dressing,  but  is  rather  expensive, 


Pruning  Mature  Trees  115 

and  difficult  to  apply.  Other  materials  have  been  used, 
some  successfully  and  some  disastrously,  and  the  grower 
is  to  be  cautioned  about  experimenting;  better  adhere 
to  materials  known  to  be  safe  and  efficient.  Growers 
often  overdo  the  matter  and  waste  time  in  treating  small 
wounds.  Surely  a  wound  less  than  one  and  one-half  inches 
in  diameter  is  not  worth  bothering  with,  if  the  wound 
is  properly  made. 

These  suggestions  apply  to  wounds  made  by  the  care- 
less cultivator  as  well  as  those  made  by  the  pruner. 
Unsightly  wounds  and  permanent  injury  may  often  be 
avoided  by  proper  treatment  of  trunk  wounds.  When 
the  body  of  the  tree  is  injured,  the  ragged  edges  of  the 
bark  should  be  pared  off  to  sound  tissue  and  the  whole 
injury  covered  with  paint  or  grafting-wax.  If  promptly 
done,  this  prevents  drying  out  of  the  tissues,  and  new  bark 
will  readily  form,  except  on  parts  where  the  outer  wood 
cells  are  actually  destroyed,  and  in  time  this  will  grow 
over.  Wrapping  the  part  with  cloth,  or?  if 
it  is  near  the  ground,  mounding  earth  up 
over  it,  will  often  answer  the  same  purpose. 

Pruning  Tools 

Every  pruner  shou  d  be  furnished  with 
good  tools;  they  encourage  him  to  do  good 
work.  This  does  not  necessarily  mean  that 
he  must  have  every  tool  on  the  market,  for 
many  of  them  are  useless;  it  does  mean, 
however,  that  the  ax  and  a  dull  saw  have 
no  place  in  the  catalogue  of  pruning  tools.  FJG  32  -. 
The  pruner  needs  a  good  sharp  saw,  a  good  ing  Saw. 


116 


Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 


pair  of  light  shears,  a  pair  of  heavy  shears,  possibly  a 
good  heavy  knife,  and  of  course  a  good  ladder. 

The  two  common  types  of  saws  found  on  the  market  are 
those  shown  in  Figures  32  and  33.  That  shown  in  Figure 
32  is  a  good  cheap  saw,  and  will  answer  the 
purpose  in  many  cases.  A  handier  saw  is 
shown  in  Figure  33.  The  blade  is  stretched 
between  swivels  and  can  be  turned  to  any 
angle.  It  is  well  adapted  to  close  work  in 
the  crotches  of  the  tree.  This  type  of  saw, 
of  various  makes,  can  generally  be  bought 
for  three  dollars.  The 
blades  are  not  as  frail  as 
they  look,  and  seldom  break 
if  properly  handled;  they 
can  be  replaced  at  a  cost  of 
fifty  cents.  It  is  really  the 
best  type  of  pruning  saw, 
and  should  be  used  more 
generally. 

A  good  type  of  hand  shears  is  that 
shown  in  Figure  34.  It  is  indispensable 
for  light  work.  Various  makes  are  on 
the  market.  Buy  the  one  that  appeals 
to  you.  A  pair  of  heavy  shears  like 
those  illustrated  in  Figure  35  is  almost  a  necessity. 
They  take  the  place  of  the  saw  in  many  cases,  and 
will  do  the  work  in  less  time.  They  are  used  in  heading- 
in  limbs  where  the  saw  can  hardly  be  used.  The  peach 
pruner  finds  good  use  for  them.  They  work  well  on 
limbs  up  to  one  and  one-half  inches  in  diameter.  The 


FIG.  33.  —  Prun- 
ing Saw. 


FIG.  34.  —  Prun- 
ing Shears. 


Pruning  Mature  Trees 


117 


FIG.   35.  —  Heavy 
Pruning  Shears. 


only  objection  the  writers  have  to  this  tool  is  that   the 

primer  sometimes  gets  careless  and  leaves  stubs.     There 

is  a  type  of  heavy  shears  on  the  market 

that   has  two  cutting  edges  instead  of 

one,  but  it  seems  to  do  no  better  work. 

The  pruner   finds   very   little    use   for 

a   knife  in   pruning  mature  trees,  and 

seldom  carries  a  special  pruning  knife. 

Several  types  of  the  long-handled  tree 

pruners  are  on  the  market,  but  they 

are  of  little  value  in   the   commercial 

orchard.     The  pruner  should   be   close 

to  his  work,  and  with  a  good  ladder 

and  short-handled  tools  he  will  do  better 

work. 

Pruning  the  Apple 

With  the  young  orchard  well  grown  (see  Chapter  VII), 
the  pruner  has  probably  solved  the  most  difficult  prob- 
lem in  the  pruning  of  the  apple  tree.  The  principles 
involved  in  the  pruning  of  the  old  orchard  are  not  com- 
plicated. Nearly  all  our  standard  commercial  varieties 
of  apple  tend  to  overbear  in  the  Far  West,  and  one  of  the 
first  objects  of  the  pruner  should  be  to  overcome  this 
tendency;  the  more  prolific  the  variety,  the  heavier  the 
pruning. 

To  be  an  intelligent  pruner,  one  must  also  acquaint 
himself  with  the  habits  of  growth  of  the  different  varieties 
as  well  as  habits  of  fruit-bearing.  Upright  growers  will 
require  pruning  to  spread  them,  and  straggling  growers 
such  heading-in  as  will  make  them  grow  more  upright. 
The  head  should  be  kept  reasonably  open  and  well  supplied 


118 


Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 


open 


with  fruiting-wood  throughout.     The  idea  of  the 
head,  however,  can  be  overdone.     (See  Fig.  36.) 

Limbs  that  interfere  or  are  liable  to  form  bad  crotches 
should  be  removed  and  the  main  branches  headed-in,  as 


FIG.  36.  — Exaggerated  Type  of  Open-centered  Tree. 

the  tree  indicates  the  need  by  overbearing  or  by  weak 
growth.  Moderate  annual  prunings  are  always  to  be 
preferred  to  heavy  pruning  at  irregular  intervals;  these 
heavy  prunings  tend  to  upset  a  regular  bearing  habit,  and 
may  bring  on  an  "  off-year."  However,  if  it  should  become 


Pruning  Mature  Trees 


119 


necessary  to  employ  drastic  measures  in  pruning  the 
neglected  orchard,  do  not  be  afraid  to  use  them,  but  do 
not  make  the  mistake  of  selecting  an  "off-year"  in  which 
to  do  this  heavy  cutting. 


FIG.  37.  —  Jonathan  well  Headed-in. 

A  discussion  of  the  amount  of  pruning  required  by 
different  varieties  could  almost  as  well  be  introduced 
here  as  that  on  the  pruning  of  different  kinds  of  fruit. 


120 


Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 


Yet  the  growth  of  the  tree,  and  necessarily  the  pruning, 
depend  much  more  on  soil  conditions;  and  while  it  might 


FIG.    38.  —  Jonathan,  growing  Long,  Weak  Branches,  due  to  Lack  of 
proper  Pruning. 

be  possible,  it  would  hardly  be  safe  to  lay  down  definite 
rules  for  the  pruning  of  any  particular  variety.     Both 


Pruning  Mature  Trees 


121 


the  Winesap  and  Missouri  (Pippin)  may  be  classed  as 
prolific  varieties  that  require  severe  pruning.     The  Jona- 


FIG.  39.  —  Ben  Davis  Fifteen  Years  Old  and  ruined.     Such  Loss  may  be 
avoided  by  proper  Pruning. 

than  at  the  age  of  11  or  12  years  almost  invariably  begins 
to  grow  spindling  in  the  top,  and  requires  frequent  cutting 
back  to  keep  that  tree  in  a  thrifty  condition.  Figure  37 


122 


Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 


shows  a  Jonathan  tree  well  headed-in,  with  stocky  growth, 
while  Figure  38  is  of  a  neglected  tree  of  the  same  variety 
and  of  the  same  age.  These  willowy  limbs  bear  small 


FIG.  40.  —  White  Pearmain  showing  Type  of  Growth. 

leaves  and  an  abundance  of  apples  that  rarely  come  up 
to  size,  and  the  liability  of  such  neglected  trees  breaking 
down  under  a  load  of  fruit  is  well  shown  in  Figure  39.  Fig- 
ure 37  shows  how  sprouts  are  largely  avoided  by  cutting  to 


Pruning  Mature  Trees  123 

side  limbs.  Varieties  that  bloom  heavily  but  set  very 
few  fruits  should  be  treated  as  varieties  that  overbear,  and 
be  pruned  heavily  during  the  dormant  season.  Varieties 
that  refuse  to  develop  fruit-buds  should  not  be  pruned 
excessively,  at  least  not  in  the  dormant  season. 

An  idea  of  the  difference  in  growth  and  fruiting-habit  of 
two  varieties  may  be  had  by  comparing  Figures  37  and  40, 
Jonathan  and  White  Pearmain.  The  White  Pearmain 
is  rather  a  strong  grower  and  a  variety  that  does  not  bear 
heavily  on  young  spurs.  The  fruiting-spurs  are  distrib- 
uted along  the  larger  limbs.  Such  a  variety  does  not 
need  a  great  deal  of  pruning. 

Summer  pruning  is  supposed  to  incite  fruitfulness, 
but  does  not  always  give  uniform  and  satisfactory  results. 
Unfruitful  varieties  may  be  forced  to  bear  fruit  more  easily 
by  withholding  water  in  late  summer,  or,  better  still, 
if  the  fault  is  known,  plant  them  on  a  light  soil;  poor 
bearers  are  nearly  always  strong  growers,  and  very  often 
a  shy  bearer  on  heavy  soils  is  prolific  on  a  gravelly  hill- 
side. The  Yellow  Newtown  is  a  striking  example  of  a 
variety  of  this  type.  The  growth  and  fruiting-habit  of 
the  tree  determine  largely  what  treatment  it  shall  receive 
at  the  hand  of  the  pruner.  While  pruning  may  not  take 
the  place  of  thinning  entirely,  it  may  be  employed  as  a 
means  of  correcting  the  faults  of  alternate  bearing  and  of 
overbearing. 

Pruning  the  Apricot 

In  the  general  growth  and  fruiting-habit  of  the  tree, 
the  apricot  occupies  a  position  between  the  cherry  and 
the  peach.  The  fruit-buds  are  developed  in  the  axils 
of  leaves  on  both  shortened,  spur-like  twigs  and  on  the 


124  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

stronger-growing  branches,  both  of  the  current  season's 
growth.  These  fruiting-spurs  of  the  apricot  differ  from 
those  of  the  cherry  in  the  fact  that  they  develop  no 
true  terminal  buds.  The  apparent  terminal  of  the  new 
growth  is  a  lateral  bud  and  may  be  either  a  fruit-bud  or  a 
branch-bud.  It  is  generally  a  branch-bud,  but  it  is  not 
uncommon  to  find  weak  spurs  bearing  only  fruit-buds,  and 
such  spurs,  with  no  branch-buds  to  continue  their  growth, 
must  perish  at  the  close  of  the  fruiting  season. 

The  general  plan  of  pruning  the  apricot  resembles  that 
followed  in  pruning  the  peach,  although,  as  a  rule,  the 
cutting  should  be  hardly  as  severe.  The  young  tree  is  a 
strong  grower,  and  must  be  put  through  about  the  same 
course  of  training  as  the  young  peach.  This  strengthens 
or  stiffens  the  framework  and  develops  a  broad,  low- 
headed  tree.  Normally  the  tree  does  not  grow  as  much 
new  wood  as  the  peach,  and  it  is  often  possible  to  do  the 
greater  part  of  the  pruning  by  simply  heading-in  the 
strong  growth.  The  pruning  should  be  sufficient  to  keep 
the  fruiting-wood  growing  thriftily  and  the  tree  well 
within  bounds. 

While  to  a  certain  extent  pruning  reduces  the  labor  of 
hand  thinning,  it  will  not  take  its  place  entirely.  If  prop- 
erly thinned,  the  apricot  will  stand  much  neglect  as 
regards  pruning,  but  proper  pruning  is  a  matter  of  econ- 
omy. As  the  tree  grows  older  it  will  need  more  severe 
pruning  to  force  new  fruiting-wood  in  the  center.  The 
absence  of  fruiting-wood  in  the  center  of  the  carelessly 
pruned  apricot  tree  is  even  more  pronounced  than  in  the 
neglected  peach  tree.  The  top  should  be  well  spread  and 
the  fruiting  area  of  the  head  maintained  near  the  ground. 


Pruning  Mature  Trees  125 

While  the  season  for  pruning  the  apricot  generally 
extends  through  February  and  March,  summer  pruning 
is  rather  extensively  practiced  on  the  Pacific  coast,  where 
the  trees  are  headed-in  as  soon  as  the  crop  is  harvested. 
This  starts  the  smaller  laterals  into  stronger  growth,  and 
they  develop  an  abundance  of  fruit-buds.  Limited  obser- 
vations of  the  same  system  employed  in  the  inter-mountain 
climate  suggest  that  it  may  not  be  without  merit  here. 
While  this  late  growth  is  inclined  to  be  immature  and 
may  suffer  from  severe  winter  freezing,  it  is  more  desirable 
from  the  standpoint  of  late  blooming.  Fruit-buds  on  this 
immature  wood  open  four  to  five  days  later  than  those  on 
mature  wood.  This  may  frequently  be  an  advantage  in 
localities  where  late  spring  frosts  are  not  uncommon. 
The  advisability  of  such  a  practice  has  not  been  fully 
demonstrated,  and  is  given  only  as  a  suggestion. 

Pruning  the  Cherry 

The  man  who  objects  to  pruning,  vowing  homage  to 
nature,  should  grow  cherries,  for  there  is  no  fruit-tree  of 
which  it  may  be  said  that  nature  is  a  more  efficient 
pruner.  In  fact,  it  is  a  common  impression  among 
fruit-growers  that  the  mature  cherry  tree  needs  no 
pruning.  This  condition,  however,  is  more  largely  due 
to  indifference  on  the  part  of  the  markets  than  to  an 
inability  to  secure  results  from  pruning.  When  compe- 
tition becomes  more  keen,  fancy  grades  of  cherries  will 
gain  in  popularity  and,  as  in  the  growing  of  other  fancy 
fruits,  pruning  will  be  found  to  be  expedient. 

In  the  cherry  the  fruit  is  borne  on  one-year-old  wood  and 
mostly  on  short  growths  or  spurs.  An  examination  of 


126  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

the  spurs  will  show  that  they  differ  from  those  of  the 
apple  in  carrying  both  terminal  and  axillary  buds,  the 
terminal,  with  few  exceptions,  being  a  branch-bud,  and 
those  developed  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves  mostly  fruit-buds. 
Fruit-buds  are  also  found  as  axillary  buds  near  the  base 
of  the  stronger-growing  new  wood.  The  cherry,  then, 
has  a  fruiting-habit  which  would  indicate  that  the  tree 
will  stand  only  moderate  pruning.  Trees  overpruned 
produce  an  excess  of  strong  new  wood  with  few  fruit-buds. 
In  neglected  trees  the  spurs  become  weak  and  spindling 
from  constant  bearing,  the  flowers  are  borne  singly  in 
the  buds  when  they  should  be  in  pairs  or  triplets,  and  the 
tree  produces  a  large  number  of  medium-sized  fruits. 

The  method  of  pruning  will  depend  somewhat  on  the 
variety,  but  the  general  plan  should  be  to  keep  the  fruiting 
area  of  the  tree  as  near  the  ground  as  possible;  to  shade 
the  trunk  to  prevent  sun-scald;  and  to  encourage  the 
growth  of  fruiting- wood  throughout  the  entire  top. 

The  sweet  and  semi-sweet  varieties  are  upright  growers, 
and  will  need  some  heading-in  to  keep  them  within  bounds. 
The  rapid  growth  forced  by  pruning  must  be  checked 
by  careful  watering.  Unless  this  precaution  is  heeded, 
immature  growth  will  result,  and  young  trees  may  be 
killed  outright  in  severe  winters.  Like  the  Anjou  pear, 
some  of  the  cherries  produce  an  excess  of  weak  fruit- 
buds  that  fail  to  set  fruit.  When  this  is  found  to  be  the 
case,  it  is  a  good  sign  that  the  tree  is  not  being  pruned  as 
severely  as  it  should  be.  Heavy  pruning  in  the  dormant 
season  will  often  correct  this  fault.  On  the  contrary, 
lack  of  bloom  is  generally  due  to  excessive  pruning  or 
overwatering.  Occasionally  we  find  a  variety  in  which 


Pruning  Mature  Trees  127 

this  fault  is  characteristic,  but  it  may  usually  be  over- 
come by  proper  handling. 

Pruning  the  Peach 

There  is  probably  no  fruit-tree  that  gives  the  careful, 
observing  pruner  as  much  pleasure  in  the  pruning  as 
does  the  peach.  Results  soon  indicate  whether  the 
pruning  is  right  or  wrong,  for  no  fruit-tree  will  suffer 
more  from  neglect,  and  none  responds  more  promptly 
to  careful  treatment.  This  prompt  response,  so  plainly 
indicated,  lends  not  a  little  inspiration  to  the  proper  train- 
ing and  care  of  the  peach  orchard,  and  it  is  safe  to  say 
that,  largely  on  this  account,  no  fruit-tree  is  better  pruned 
in  our  recognized  peach  sections.  The  practice  is  simple, 
and  lack  of  courage  is  more  often  responsible  for  fail- 
ure than  complicated  principles.  As  already  mentioned, 
the  peach  develops  its  fruit-buds  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves, 
and  the  fruit  is  borne  on  one-year-old  wood,  being  a  system 
of  fruit-bearing  that  makes  severe  pruning  a  prerequisite 
to  successful  peach-growing. 

In  pruning  the  peach,  the  object  of  the  pruner  should 
be  to  cut  out  enough  wood  to  force  good,  strong  new  growth 
each  year,  to  remove  superfluous  fruiting- wood,  and  to 
give  the  tree  the  desired  shape.  The  mature  peach  tree 
should  make  an  annual  growth  of  at  least  18  inches. 
With  such  new  growth,  much  of  the  new  wood  will  have 
to  be  removed  entirely,  while  that  remaining  may  be  cut 
back  to  remove  a  part  of  the  fruit-buds  it  carries.  While 
some  persons  object  to  shortening-in  the  fruiting- wood, 
contending  that  it  injures  the  fruit,  the  years  of  experience 
of  our  most  careful  growers  recommend  rather  than  con- 


128 


Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 


demn  such  a  system  of  thinning.  While  it  does  not  take 
the  place  of  hand  thinning  entirely,  it  saves  a  great  deal 
of  tedious  hand  work. 

It  is  hard  to  say  just  how  much  of  the  new  wood  is  to 
be  removed,  or  how  much  the  remainder  should  be  short- 


FIG.  41 .  —  Well- trained  Peach  Tree,  Seven  Years  Old.    Palisade,  Colorado. 

ened-in.  Probably  four-fifths  is  removed  entirely,  the 
amount  removed  from  what  remains  depending  more 
on  the  location  of  the  fruit- buds.  With  the  older  tree 
it  may  be  half  or  even  more,  while  in  the  young  tree  it 
may  be  necessary  to  leave  the  laterals  unpruned  on  ac- 
count of  the  fruit-buds  being  nearer  the  tips. 

It  is  a  common  practice  to  do  the  heavier  pruning 


Pruning  Mature  Trees 


129 


early  in  the  spring,  leaving  the  clipping-back  and  thinning 
until  later,  some  waiting  until  all  danger  of  frost  is  past. 
The  pruner  should  constantly  keep  before  him  an  ideal 
form  for  the  peach  tree;  the  well-grown  young  orchard  at 
the  mercy  of  a  careless  pruner  may  become  ungainly  and 


FIG.  42.  — Peach  Tree,  Nine  Years  Old,  well  Trained.    Note  how  nearly 
it  conforms  to  a  Right  Angle. 

unproductive  at  the  age  of  10  years.  Effort  should  be 
made  to  keep  the  fruit  as  near  the  ground  as  possible, 
as  most  of  the  fruit  on  a  seven-year-old  tree  should  be 
reached  from  the  ground,  and  in  no  peach  orchard  should 
the  picker  need  a  ladder  longer  than  six  feet.  (See  Fig. 
41.)  The  depth  of  the  fruiting  area  of  the  peach  tree 


130  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

will  seldom  exceed  six  or  seven  feet,  and  an  attempt  to 
increase  this  depth  will  only  result  in  a  smothering  out  of 
the  wood  below. 

A  better  plan  is  to  increase  the  productiveness  of  the 
tree  by  increasing  its  spread  rather  than  its  height.  The 
ideal  peach  tree  is  one  in  which  the  top  just  comes  within  a 
right  angle,  or  in  other  words,  the  spread  should  be  almost 
double  the  height.  Figure  42  illustrates  the  point  very 
well.  Notice  how  the  head  is  well  filled  with  fruiting- 
wood,  and  compare  with  Figure  43,  a  tree  of  the  same  age. 
With  such  a  system  of  training,  the  first  tree  will  be  pro- 
ductive at  the  age  of  15  years,  while  the  latter,  now  9  years 
old,  must  be  rejuvenated  by  severe  heading-in  or  be  dis- 
carded as  unprofitable. 

There  is  no  more  frequent  fault  of  the  old  peach  tree  than 
that  of  the  absence  of  fruiting-wood  in  its  lower  parts. 
Such  wood  can  be  maintained  below  only  by  vigorous 
pruning  in  the  top.  The  center  should  also  be  well  filled 
with  fruiting-wood,  as  space  may  be  unnecessarily  wasted 
by  training  the  top  too  open;  the  open  center  is  not  a 
necessity  in  the  arid  sections,  where  sunshine  is  abundant. 
The  fruiting-wood  in  the  center  of  the  tree  will  hardly 
appear  as  strong  as  that  nearer  the  tips,  but,  nevertheless, 
some  of  our  best  fruit  comes  from  short  and  apparently 
weak  spurs  along  the  larger  limbs.  Some  have  tried 
summer  pruning  (thinning  out  the  new  wood  in  the  center 
of  the  tree),  hoping  to  strengthen  the  remaining  wood,  but 
it  has  not  given  satisfactory  results;  too  often  it  starts 
new  growth  that  is  immature  and  unfruitful. 

It  is  seldom  that  we  read  a  paper  on  the  subject  of  prun- 
ing the  peach  orchard  without  finding  some  reference  to 


Pruning  Mature  Trees 


131 


the  treatment  of  winter-injured  trees.     With  the  excep- 
tion of  young  trees  grown  too  late,  or  orchards  in  higher 


FIG.  43. 


Peach  Tree  of  Same  Age  as  Fig.  42.     Note  the  Long  Limbs 
with  Fruiting-wood  only  in  the  Top. 


altitudes  or  northern  latitudes,  such  injury  is  not  often 
experienced  in  the  inter-mountain  country.  It  is  well 
for  the  grower  to  remember,  however,  that  the  winter- 


132  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

injured  peach  tree  makes  the  best  recovery  when  it  has 
received  a  moderately  severe  pruning. 


FIG.  44. —  Peach  Tree  rejuvenated  by  Cutting-back  or    "Dehorning" 
.  the  Large  Limbs. 

A  subject  more  worthy  of  mention  is  that  of  the  rejuve- 
nation of  the  old  peach  orchard.     The  occasional  loss  of  a 


Pruning  Mature  Trees  133 

peach  crop  by  a  late  frost  offers  an  excellent  opportunity 
to  grow  a  new  top  on  the  old  peach  tree.  Figure  44  shows 
a  peach  tree  11  years  old,  two  years  after  the  grower  had 
taken  advantage  of  such  an  opportunity.  The  cutting- 
back  should  be  performed  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  loss 
of  the  crop  can  be  ascertained.  Severe  pruning  as  late  as 
the  first  of  June  forces  rank  new  growth  that  develops  very 
few  fruit-buds.  Rather  large  limbs  may  be  cut  if  the  bot- 
tom of  the  tree  has  some  smaller  growth,  but  cutting  to 
bare  stubs  over  two  or  three  inches  in  diameter  is  hardly 
advisable. 

Pruning  the  Pear 

The  mature  pear  tree  does  not  require  much  pruning, 
nor  does  it  allow  lack  of  pruning  to  interfere  seriously 
with  its  proper  behavior  so  far  as  fruit-bearing  is  con- 
cerned. However,  when  the  market  demands  that  the 
fancy  pear  be  from  2^to  3J4  inches  in  diameter,  the  owner 
of  the  old  pear  orchard  is  often  reminded  that  the  trees 
need  pruning.  In  general,  the  manner  of  fruit-bearing  of 
the  pear  is  practically  identical  with  that  of  the  apple. 
The  spurs  are  a  little  shorter  and  give  the  tree  rather 
a  more  barren  appearance,  and,  although  some  varieties 
develop  axillary  fruit-buds  quite  freely,  the  majority  of 
the  fruit-buds  are  terminal  on  these  short  spurs.  The 
different  varieties  vary  somewhat  in  their  fruiting-habits, 
and  a  study  of  this  character  will  indicate,  to  a  certain 
extent,  how  much  pruning  each  will  require. 

Apparently  the  grower  accepts  the  upright-growing 
habit  of  the  pear  as  inevitable,  with  hardly  so  much  as  an 
effort  to  train  it  otherwise.  With  proper  training  there  is 
no  reason  why  the  pear  tree  may  not  be  grown  with  a  mod- 


134 


Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 


erately  broad  and  low  head.     Pears  that  grow  in  the  tops 
of  high  trees  are  too  often  scarred  if  not  whipped  off  by  wind 


FIG.  45.  —  Improper  Pruning  of  Neglected  Pear  Tree. 

before  they  are  mature,  and,  besides,  it  is  too  expensive  to 
pick  them.     The  shaping  of  the  tree  is  determined  mostly 


Pruning  Mature  Trees  135 

by  the  treatment  that  the  young  tree  receives;  but  a  little 
judicious  heading-in  of  the  old  tree,  taking  care  to  cut 
to  outside  buds  or  branches,  will  improve  an  undesirable 
form.  Too  often  the  tree  is  allowed  to  grow  at  will  until 
it  is  out  of  reach,  and  then  in  a  fit  of  desperation  the  grower 
resorts  to  such  a  system  of  heading-in  as  is  shown  in  Fig- 
ure 45.  This  system  may  be  correct  for  the  lawn  hedge, 
but  it  is  not  well  adapted  to  the  pear,  as  is  shown  by  Figure 
46,  the  same  tree  one  year  later.  By  the  time  the  pruner 
gets  through  with  this  tree  he  will  have  decided  that  it  is 
poor  policy  to  head-in  pear  trees.  Had  the  pear  tree  been 
properly  headed-in,  the  result  would  have  been  different. 
It  is  only  reasonable  to  suppose  that  leaving  stubs  of  large 
limbs  which  bear  numerous  fruit-spurs  will  result  in  rank 
new  growth  from  these  spurs,  especially  in  an  off-year, 
when  the  spurs  carry  a  large  proportion  of  branch-buds. 
When  it  becomes  necessary  to  head  in  the  large  pear  trees, 
always  cut  to  side  limbs,  and  do  not  make  the  mistake  of 
choosing  an  off-year  to  do  this  severe  pruning;  a  heavy 
crop  tends  to  check  rampant  growth  encouraged  by  vigor- 
ous pruning. 

While  some  growers  really  believe  that  the  pear  tree  will 
not  stand  pruning,  we  know  of  no  variety  to  which  mod- 
erate pruning  is  detrimental.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are 
varieties  that  require  severe  pruning.  In  spite  of  the  fact 
that  the  Anjou  pear  is  a  favorite  on  the  market,  many  a 
grower  will  not  consider  the  planting  of  this  variety.  Yet 
a  few  of  its  more  forbearing  admirers  have  demonstrated 
that  its  one  bad  fault  (tardy  bearing)  may  be  overcome  by 
proper  pruning.  The  young  tree  blooms  freely  and  ap- 
parently sets  very  well,  but  before  the  fruits  reach  any 


136 


Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 


size,  the  crop  thins  itself  to  almost  nothing;  even  the  old 
tree  carries  a  very  small  proportion  of  its  bloom  to  matur- 
ity. Heavy  .pruning  in  the  dormant  season  will  stop  this 


FIG.  46.  —  Same  as  Fig.  45  after  One  Season's  Growth. 


Pruning  Mature  Trees  137 

shedding  and  insure  a  good  crop  of  fruit.  The  practice  of 
the  most  successful  growers  is  to  cut  the  tree  back  each 
year  and  cut  out  some  of  the  new  wood  that  may  have  been 
forced  by  the  last  pruning.  When  once  the  tree  begins 
to  bear  good  crops,  there  is  less  trouble  about  its  shed- 
ding. 

Some  other  varieties  are  more  tardy  about  blooming, 
and  heavy  pruning  in  the  dormant  season  would  only 
augment  this  objectionable  character.  Such  varieties 
often  respond  to  June  pruning ;  and,  if  they  do  not, 
girdling  in  June  will  often  prove  beneficial.  In  girdling, 
a  strip  of  bark  one  quarter  of  an  inch  in  width  and  ex- 
tending entirely  around  the  trunk  may  be  removed ;  but 
perhaps  a  safer  plan  is  to  remove  vertical  strips  of  bark 
one  and  one-half  inches  in  width,  leaving  other  strips  of 
about  the  same  width  intact.  If  the  wood  is  uninjured, 
these  wounds  soon  heal  and  do  not  permanently  injure 
the  tree. 

It  is  difficult  to  say  just  how  much  the  pear  should  be 
pruned.  The  grower  must  decide  for  himself.  The  main 
object  of  pruning  the  mature  tree  should  be  to  thin  the 
fruit  and  thus  improve  the  quality  as  well  as  to  encour- 
age more  regular  bearing.  However,  the  grower  must  not 
feel  that  pruning  will  take  the  place  of  thinning  entirely; 
to  secure  best  results  the  two  must  go  together. 

The  subject  of  pruning  the  pear  could  hardly  be  complete 
without  some  reference  to  the  control  of  pear-blight.  While 
it  is  true  that  when  once  the  pear  tree  is  inoculated  with 
blight  we  must  lay  aside  many  of  our  ideas  about  pruning 
and  cut  to  remove  the  affected  parts,  it  is  also  true  that, 
in  a  way,  the  tree  may  be  trained  to  reduce  to  a  mini- 


138  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

mum  the  loss  from  attacks  of  this  disease.  After  the  tree 
begins  to  bear,  heavy  pruning  that  may  induce  very  heavy 
growth  should  be  avoided  if  possible,  as  it  is  generally 
conceded  that  blight  is  more  destructive  to  trees  making 
rank  growth.  The  majority  of  inoculations  takes  place 
through  the  blossoms,  and  one  of  the  most  serious  types 
of  injury  is  that  occasioned  by  the  entrance  of  blight  into 
larger  limbs  through  short  spurs.  Through  these  short 
spurs  the  germs  gain  entrance  to  the  larger  parts,  and  often 
girdle  them  before  discoloration  indicates  their  presence. 
It  is  the  nature  of  the  pear  tree  to  develop  these  short 
spurs  in  abundance,  and  it  will  be  necessary  to  remove 
them  from  the  base  of  the  larger  limbs.  Strong  new 
wood  may  be  allowed  to  take  their  places,  and  this  may 
later  be  developed  into  fruiting-branches.  Then,  should 
blight  enter  these  blossoms,  they  are  far  enough  removed 
from  the  main  limbs  that  the  disease  may  be  detected 
and  intercepted  before  it  reaches  the  most  vital  parts. 

Pruning  the  Quince 

While  the  importance  of  the  quince  industry  in  the 
West  might  not  seem  to  warrant  the  insertion  of  this  para- 
graph, the  almost  criminal  neglect  from  which  the  quince 
tree  suffers  as  regards  pruning  would  move  one  to  write 
a  book.  Among  the  fruit-trees  herein  considered,  the 
quince  has  a  fruit-bearing  habit  peculiar  to  itself.  With 
the  advance  of  spring  the  dormant  buds  on  the  one-year- 
old  wood  push  out  leafy  shoots  from  three  to  four  inches 
in  length,  and  these  are  terminated  by  a  single  flower. 
While  both  axillary  and  terminal  buds  produce  these 
flower-bearing  shoots,  the  stronger  flowers  come  from  the 


Pruning  Mature  Trees  139 

axillary  buds  on  the  last  half  of  the  annual  growth;  ter- 
minal buds  more  frequently  give  rise  to  branches,  or  at 
most  weak  flower-bearing  shoots.  Considering  its  fruit- 
ing-habit,  then,  the  quince  should  receive  about  the  same 
pruning  as  the  peach.  While  with  some  varieties  the 
plant  very  readily  assumes  a  tree  form,  others  are,  at 
their  best,  only  a  bush.  A  course  of  severe  pruning  for 
the  young  tree,  however,  will  aid  the  grower  in  securing  a 
desirably  shaped  tree. 

When  the  tree  has  reached  a  bearing  age,  it  should  be 
pruned  annually  by  thinning  out  the  new  wood  and  clip- 
ping-back that  remaining  to  about  two-thirds  of  its  length. 
With  proper  pruning,  the  quince  should  produce  annual 
growths  from  12  to  24  inches  in  length.  Too  rank  growth 
is  not  desirable  on  account  of  the  stronger  fruit-buds  being 
nearer  the  tips,  and  in  cutting-back  such  rank  growth  the 
pruning  must  not  be  too  severe.  The  plant  should  be 
made  to  assume  as  near  a  tree  form  as  possible,  and  then 
in  addition  it  should  be  pruned  with  the  idea  of  growing 
a  goodly  supply  of  new  wood  each  season. 

Pruning  the  Plum 

Under  this  head  is  grouped  a  large  number  of  species 
and  varieties  of  fruit  differing  widely  in  their  habits  of 
growth  and  of  fruit-bearing.  Were  it  not  for  the  fact 
that  common  practice  seems  to  discourage  the  pruning  of 
many  varieties  to  any  considerable  extent,  this  would  be 
a  difficult  subject  to  handle;  no  well-defined  system  of 
pruning  would  suit  all.  In  their  habits  of  fruit-bearing 
the  majority  of  the  plums  resemble  the  apricot  very  much. 
Still,  many  of  them,  like  the  cherry,  show  more  of  an 


140  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

inclination  to  bear  only  branch-buds  on  the  thriftier  new 
wood.  Like  the  apricot,  the  plums,  with  possibly  a  few 
exceptions,  develop  no  true  terminal  buds.  Except  on 
weak  spurs,  the  last  axillary  bud  is  generally  a  branch-bud 
that  continues  the  growth  of  the  branch  or  spur  the  fol- 
lowing season.  The  fruit-buds  are  developed  in  the  axils 
of  the  leaves  on  both  spurs  and  on  the  ranker-growing  new 
wood,  the  different  varieties  showing  considerable  varia- 
tion in  this  respect. 

The  body  of  the  plum  tree  is  subject  to  injury  from  sun- 
scald,  and  it  goes  without  saying  that  the  tree  should  be 
headed  low.  The  young  trees  of  most  varieties  will  need 
cutting-back,  and  the  tops  thinned  out,  to  develop  them 
into  desirably  shaped  trees.  Some  varieties  will  require 
pruning  to  spread  them,  and  others,  of  a  more  straggling 
habit,  will  need  cutting-back  to  inside  buds  or  branches 
to  make  them  grow  more  upright. 

As  mentioned  before,  the  bearing  plum  tree,  according 
to  local  custom,  receives  at  most  only  moderate  pruning. 
As  a  rule,  the  Domestica  plums,  locally  represented  by 
the  various  prunes,  are  pruned  very  little  after  they  reach 
the  bearing  age.  There  are  certain  varieties  that  tend  to 
overbear,  however,  and  a  certain  amount  of  thinning-out 
of  the  fruiting-wood  would  greatly  facilitate  hand  thin- 
ning, promote  more  regular  bearing,  and  improve  the 
quality  of  the  fruit. 

The  pruning  of  the  native  plums  is  left  largely  to  nature, 
although  there  is  no  reason  why  moderate  pruning  might 
not  improve  the  quality  of  the  fruit  and  lessen  the  diffi- 
culty of  picking. 

There  is  little  doubt  but  that  such  varieties  as  the  Bur- 


Pruning  Mature  Trees  141 

bank,  Abundance,  Satsuma,  Red  June,  and  others  of  the 
Japanese  group,  respond  satisfactorily  to  rather  severe 
pruning.  In  fact,  they  are  more  like  the  apricot  in  their 
frui ting-habit,  and  thrive  under  the  same  system  of  prun- 
ing. When  neglected,  they  tend  to  overbear  in  alternate 
years.  They  should  receive  an  annual  heading-in  and 
thinning-out  to  force  strong  new  growth  which  makes  very 
desirable  fruiting-wood.  While  pruning  as  a  means  of 
thinning  the  fruit  is  not  without  merit  in  the  case  of  the 
plums,  it  does  not  seem  to  give  results  comparable  with 
those  secured  in  the  peach.  The  grower  of  fancy  plums 
must  supplement  moderate  pruning  with  hand-thinning. 

Thinning  the  Fruit 

In  fancy-fruit  growing,  the  necessity  for  thinning  will 
become  more  apparent  as  competition  becomes  more  keen. 
While  the  wisdom  of  thinning  peaches  is  no  longer  doubted, 
growers  are  not  so  willing  to  take  up  systematic  work  in 
thinning  apples  and  pears.  But  the  time  is  coming  when 
the  fruit-grower  will  be  forced  to  conclude  that  it  no  longer 
pays  to  grow  poor  fruit.  Even  now,  the  years  that  the 
grower  makes  a  profit  in  shipping  choice  fruit  are  the 
exception  rather  than  the  rule.  There  are  but  few  lo- 
calities in  which  choice  fruit  cannot  be  grown,  and  wher- 
ever shipped,  such  fruit  must  generally  compete  with 
the  home-grown  product.  On  the  other  hand,  localities 
in  which  strictly  fancy  fruit  can  be  grown  are  limited,  and 
competition  in  this  class  is  more  impartial.  The  com- 
petition is  between  localities  which  are  probably  equally 
distant  from  the  market,  and  the  one  producing  the  best 
fruit  is  the  successful  competitor. 


142  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

To  a  certain  extent,  pruning  is  a  method  of  thinning,  but 
it  will  not  take  the  place  of  hand-thinning  entirely.  The 
production  of  a  fancier  grade  of  fruit  is  not  the  only  benefit 
derived  from  thinning:  it  encourages  more  regular  bear- 
ing; lessens  the  loss  from  the  breaking  of  limbs;  and  gives 
the  grower  an  opportunity  to  destroy  insect-infested  fruit, 
and  thus  check  the  spread  of  insects  early  in  the  season. 
The  tree  that  has  been  properly  thinned  should  produce 
a  good  crop  of  fruit  buds  each  year,  and  if  it  has  been 
both  properly  trained  and  thinned  it  will  never  need  a 
prop. 

While  many  persons  have  observed  that  apple  and  pear 
trees  are  inclined  to  bear  alternate  years,  probably  few 
understand  the  cause.  Fruit-spurs  with  terminal  fruit- 
buds,  as  those  of  apple  and  the  pear,  generally  bear  in 
alternate  years  only,  and  if  the  spurs  are  all  full  of  fruit 
one  year,  the  next  must  be  an  "  off-year."  Not  only  do 
the  spurs  fail  to  bear  annually,  but  if  the  tree  is  overloaded, 
spurs  that  produce  bloom,  even  though  they  fail  to  set 
fruit,  may  not  be  sufficiently  nourished  to  produce  fruit- 
buds  for  the  following  season.  If  the  tree  bears  only  a 
moderate  crop  of  fruit,  spurs  that  produce  bloom  but  no 
fruit  often  develop  fruit-buds  the  same  season.  If  the 
tree  is  bearing  a  light  load,  spurs  may  mature  fruit  and 
develop  fruit-buds  the  same  season.  Varieties  differ,  and 
while  some  are  regular  bearers  under  almost  any  treat- 
ment, others  show  a  stubborn  inclination  to  bear  only 
alternate  years.  After  the  old  tree  has  fallen  into  the 
habit  of  bearing  alternate  years,  it  is  no  doubt  more  diffi- 
cult to  get  it  back  to  a  regular  bearing  habit.  Off-years 
are  not  uncommon  with  some  of  the  fruit  trees  bearing 


Pruning  Mature  Trees  143 

from  axillary  fruit-buds,  but  it  is  not  so  pronounced  as 
with  the  apple  and  pear. 

Thinning  the  Apple.  —  Fixed  rules  to  be  followed  in 
thinning  are  hard  to  give.  Much  depends  on  the  general 
thrift  of  the  tree,  and,  as  in  pruning,  the  grower  must 
learn  much  by  experience.  If  we  thin  to  encourage  an- 
nual bearing,  it  will  be  seen  that  all  the  fruit  must  be  re- 
moved from  some  of  the  spurs,  and,  at  the  same  time,  the 
number  of  fruits  remaining  must  be  reduced  to  such  an 
extent  that  the  tree  is  not  overburdened.  Some  persons 
thin  to  leave  the  apples  at  given  distances  apart,  but  a  rule 
fixing  a  certain  space  between  the  fruits  will  not  hold  good 
in  all  cases.  If  we  were  always  sure  the  tree  had  been 
properly  pruned,  we  might  be  able  to  give  a  satisfactory 
rule  to  be  followed,  leaving  the  fruits  at  so  many  inches 
apart. 

A  plan  the  writers  have  tried  and  found  to  be  very 
satisfactory  is  so  to  thin  as  to  leave  a  certain  number  of 
boxes  of  fruit  on  the  tree.  Suppose  you  decide  that  the 
tree  should  produce  ten  boxes  of  fancy  fruit.  A  fairly 
uniform  grade  of  apples  ranging  from  2^  to  3  inches 
in  diameter  will  pack  about  150  to  the  box,  and  by 
thinning  two  or  three  trees  and  leaving  the  1500  apples, 
actually  counting  them  or  estimating  them  as  closely 
as  possible,  one  learns  what  a  tree  properly  thinned 
should  look  like.  With  these  trees  as  a  model,  it  is  sur- 
prising how  close  one  can  come  to  leaving  just  the  right 
number.  We  think  it  is  possible,  by  careful  work,  to  come 
within  a  box  of  the  ideal.  But  knowing  how  much  the 
tree  should  produce  is  where  the  experience  counts. 

Not  many  varieties  of  apple  will  require  much  thinning 


144  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

before  they  are  10  years  old,  and  at  this  age  the  average 
tree  should  produce  about  eight  boxes  of  fancy  fruit; 
some  will  produce  more  and  some  less.  After  the  tenth 
year  a  gain  of  a  box  per  year  would  be  a  conservative  esti- 
mate. Of  course  the  yield  will  vary  under  different  con- 
ditions; and,  while  this  is  not  a  rule  that  may  be  implicitly 
followed,  it  is  surely  more  accurate  than  thinning  to  a 
certain  distance. 

The  thinner  first  removes  defective  or  wormy  specimens, 
and  he  should  be  supplied  with  a  bag  to  carry  the  wormy 
fruits  from  the  orchard  to  be  destroyed;  then  those 
from  the  tips  of  the  limbs  may  as  well  be  removed,  for  they 
seldom  make  fancy  fruit;  and,  if  possible  to  do  it  and 
leave  the  required  amount,  thin  to  one  fruit  on  the  spur. 
June  and  early  July  is  the  proper  season  for  thinning  apples 
and  pears. 

Experiments  have  shown  that  it  pays  to  thin  apples. 
The  fruit  is  improved  in  both  size  and  color,  the  tree  bears 
more  regularly,  and  those  that  might  break  under  heavy 
loads  are  saved.  Some  persons  say  it  is  expensive  to  thin; 
but,  if  one  stops  to  calculate,  he  will  find  that  it  really 
costs  no  more  to  pick  fruit  in  June  than  it  does  in  October. 
A  man  can  thin  from  ten  to  fifteen  twelve-year-old  trees 
per  day,  and  the  actual  cost  of  thinning  should  not  exceed 
two  cents  per  box.  It  is  true  that  the  results  the  first 
season  are  often  disappointing,  for  an  unthinned  tree  may 
produce  sixteen  boxes  of  fruit  that  will  grade  50  per  cent 
fancy,  while  the  thinned  tree  of  the  same  age  produces 
only  ten  boxes  that  will  grade  95  per  cent  fancy.  This 
hardly  seems  profitable;  but  the  next  year  will  tell,  and 
it  is  safe  to  say  that  two  years  running  the  thinned  tree 


Pruning  Mature  Trees  145 

will  produce  as  much  fancy  fruit  as  the  unthinned  tree 
will  produce  of  both  fancy  and  choice. 

Thinning  Pears.  —  Methods  of  thinning  pears  differ 
little  from  those  of  thinning  apples;  the  principles  are  the 
same.  As  a  rule,  the  pear  tree  will  produce  about  as  many 
boxes  of  fruit  as  will  the  apple  tree  of  the  same  age.  The 
fruit  is  generally  picked  by  installments,  and  it  is  possible 
to  mature  a  large  crop  of  fancy  fruit;  fruit  that  is  small 
may  be  left  until  it  reaches  the  desired  size. 

Pears  running  from  135  to  150  to  the  box  are  consid- 
ered to  be  ideal  size,  and  fruit  for  such  a  pack  must  meas- 
ure from  2J  to  2|  inches  in  diameter.  Pears  larger  than 
three  inches  are  really  not  as  desirable  for  the  fancy  fruit 
trade  as  those  of  smaller  size.  The  fruit  stands  like  a  pear 
that  can  be  sold  two  for  five  cents  at  a  profit,  and  there  is  no 
profit  to  be  made  in  selling  the  larger  ones  for  that  price, 
and  they  are  not  large  enough  to  sell  for  five  cents  each. 

Thinning  Peaches.  —  In  growing  peaches,  much  of  the 
thinning  is  done  with  the  shears  in  the  pruning  season, 
but  additional  hand  thinning  is  absolutely  necessary.  A 
good  grade  of  peaches  should  run  less  than  90  to  the  box, 
and  we  may  say  it  seldom  pays  to  ship  smaller  fruit.  A 
size  that  will  pack  less  than  80  to  the  box  is  desirable. 
The  young  peach  orchard  that  has  been  properly  pruned 
will  do  well  to  average  a  box  of  fruit  to  the  tree  the  fourth 
season  in  the  orchard,  and  the  yield  should  increase  at  the 
rate  of  about  two  boxes  per  tree  per  year.  Unless  the 
trees  have  been  exceptionally  well  pruned  and  cared  for, 
they  will  rarely  more  than  hold  their  own  after  the  eleventh 
or  twelfth  year. 

The  one  object  of  thinning,  as  practiced  with  the  stone- 


146  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

fruits,  is  to  produce  better  fruit.  The  thinning  should  be 
performed  before  the  foliage  gets  too  heavy  and  the  pits 
begin  to  harden.  By  carefully  thinning  a  few  trees  and 
estimating  the  number  of  fruits  remaining,  one  can  soon 
form  an  ideal  to  work  by.  The  pruning  shears  may  be 
used  as  a  help  in  thinning,  and  such  fruiting-wood  as  is 
not  necessarily  needed  may  be  removed  entirely. 


CHAPTER  IX 
TOP-WORKING  FRUIT  TREES 

IT  is  becoming  more  and  more  apparent  of  late  years  that 
certain  localities  and  soils  are  peculiarly  adapted  to  grow- 
ing particular  kinds  and  even  varieties  of  fruit.  Com- 
mercial fruit-growing  localities  are  making  their  reputation 
by  being  able  to  grow  a  few  varieties  well.  So  each  new 
fruit  country  must  go  through  an  experimental  stage, 
when  a  host  of  varieties  is  being  tested  to  determine  those 
best  adapted  to  its  peculiar  conditions.  Then  in  the  de- 
velopment of  each  new  fruit  country  there  comes  a  time 
when  the  grower  will  be  obliged  to  solve  the  problem  as  to 
what  to  do  with  the  undesirable  varieties.  Shall  he  de- 
stroy the  trees  or  graft  them  over  to  better  varieties  ? 

Modes  of  grafting  over  old  trees  have  long  been  prac- 
ticed, and  experience  has  proved  that,  if  properly  done, 
top-working  brings  quicker  returns  than  the  replanting  of 
young  trees.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  see  a  fairly  good  crop 
on  the  three-year-old  top  of  a  top-worked  tree.  Trees 
properly  worked  over  give  tops  as  desirable  and  some- 
times more  desirable  than  trees  of  the  same  variety  grown 
from  first-class  nursery  stock. 

Top-working  as  a  means  of  establishing  a  weak-growing 
variety  on  a  stronger  root  system  than  its  own  is  now 
coming  into  favor.  The  Rome  (Beauty),  when  on  its  own 
roots,  is  an  indifferent  grower  on  the  best  soil;  but  when 

147 


148  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

worked  on  some  strong-growing  stump,  it  makes  a  very 
satisfactory  tree.  Some  varieties  of  apple,  susceptible 
to  attacks  of  root  rots,  could  no  doubt  be  successfully 
grown  on  roots  of  varieties  that  are  apparently  resistant. 
The  Northern  Spy  seems  to  be  a  striking  example  of  an 
apple-tree  root  free  from  the  attacks  of  woolly  aphis,  and 
it  is  sometimes  planted  and  later  worked  over  to  other 
varieties. 

Broken  and  diseased  limbs  may  be  saved  by  grafting, 
and  progressive  fruit-growers,  who  desire  to  test  new 
varieties,  can  best  do  it  by  grafting  a  few  cions  into  bear- 
ing trees. 

Some  years  ago  the  fruit-grower  looked  on  the  practice 
of  grafting  as  a  mysterious  art  and  on  the  man  who  went 
about  doing  the  work  as  a  sort  of  wizard.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  it  is  so  simple  that  any  careful  orchardist  can  and 
should  do  it  himself. 

All  of  our  common  fruit  trees  can  be  easily  grafted  or 
budded.  The  apple  and  pear  may  be  intergrafted  upon 
each  other,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  peach,  plum, 
apricot,  and  almond.  But  in  practice,  we  do  not  under- 
take such  wholesale  mixing.  It  may  be  said  that  the 
apple  and  pear  never  make  good  unions;  while  such  com- 
binations may  unite,  the  union  may  not  be  perfect  enough 
to  make  a  good  top.  We  would  not  expect  the  top- work- 
ing of  apple  to  pear,  or  vice  versa,  to  be  a  success.  The 
writers  have  seen  peach  grafts  start  very  vigorously  upon 
apricot,  and  plums  upon  peach  trees.  We  have  observed 
plum  trees  top-worked  to  peach  with  perfect  unions  and 
the  ten-year  old  tops  bearing  excellent  crops  of  fruit.  In 
this  case  the  combination  seemed  to  result  in  a  dwarfing 


Top-working  Fruit  Trees 


149 


of  the  peach  top,  although  the  growth  is  by  no  means 
stunted.  So,  in  practice,  we  adhere  largely  to  the  inter- 
grafting  of  different  varieties  of  the  same  kind  of  fruit. 

To  understand  the  principles  underlying  graftage,  the 
orchardist  should  know  how  the  stems  of  our  fruit  trees 
grow.  He  should  understand  that 
growth  in  diameter  takes  place  only 
in  a  very  small  region  between  the 
bark  and  sapwood.  This  part  of 
the  stem  is  called  the  cambium.  In 
this  thin  layer  of  tissue  the  cells  are 
still  active  and  capable  of  division, 
while  the  activity  of  each  succeeding 
layer,  on  either  side,  grows  less  and 
less. 

When  the  limb  is  split  to  insert  a 
cion,  the  cleft  does  not  grow  together 
along  its  entire  length,  as  some  may 
think.  The  cells  in  the  cambium 
may  produce  a  growth  that  may,  to 
a  certain  extent,  fill  up  the  cleft  and 
cover  over  the  stub,  but  the  tissues  of 
the  stock  and  cion  make  a  true  union 
only  where  the  cells  of  the  cambiums 
of  the  two  come  in  contact.  Figure  47  is  a  pen  drawing 
of  a  section  through  a  stub,  grafted  two  years  before. 
The  stub  was  kerf-grafted,  and  shows  that  no  union  has 
taken  place  between  the  woody  tissues  of  the  stock  and 
cion.  The  important  point  in  grafting  is  to  see  that  the 
cambium  layers  of  the  stock  and  cion  are  matched  at 
some  point. 


FIG.  47. —  Longitudinal 
Section  through  a 
Graft,  showing  that 
Union  takes  Place 
only  around  Outer 
Edge. 


150  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

When  growth  is  most  active,  we  say  that  the  bark 
" peels."  Budding  is  done  during  this  period  because 
separation  of  bark  and  wood  is  possible;  it  not  only  sim- 
plifies the  work  of  inserting  the  bud,  but,  as  growth  is  more 
active,  the  tissues  of  the  bud  and  the  stock  are  more  likely 
to  unite. 

TOP-WORKING  OLD   TREES 

In  the  working  over  of  old  trees,  it  is  well  to  bear  in  mind 
that  trees  which  show  a  poor  growth  in  the  orchard  are 
seldom  worth  the  time  it  takes  to  graft  them.  This  is  very 
often  true  of  some  varieties  of  apple.  For  example,  we 
have  never  yet  seen  a  Yellow  Transparent  stock  grow  a 
top  worth  the  space  it  occupied.  The  same  is  almost  in- 
variably true  of  tops  on  Wagener,  Duchess,  Missouri  (Pip- 
pin), Wealthy,  and  Hyslop  crab.  In  fact,  it  seldom  pays 
to  top-work  any  crab.  Figures  48,  49,  and  50  are  from  a 
series  of  photographs  of  a  Transcendent  crab-apple,  the 
first  showing  Winesap  grafts  one  year  old  and  some  just 
set;  the  second  figure,  the  same  tree  one  year  later  (quite 
a  promising  tree);  and  the  third  figure  the  result  at  the 
end  of  the  third  season,  almost  the  entire  top  being  blown 
off  by  a  heavy  wind.  The  grafts  were  Winesap  and  were 
set  in  a  kerf,  not  a  cleft. 

As  a  rule,  the  weaker-growing  varieties  are  very  unsatis- 
factory stocks  upon  which  to  work  other  kinds.  Then  the 
wisdom  of  top-working  stone-fruits  would  almost  seem 
questionable.  While  good  tops  may  be  grown  on  either 
peach,  plum,  apricot,  or  almond,  it  is  doubtful  whether 
these  tops  will  bear  much  quicker  returns  than  young 
trees  set  in  the  place  of  the  old  ones.  Still,  we  would 


Top-working  Fruit  Trees 


151 


not  care  to  discourage  a  practice  most  successfully  fol- 
lowed by  some  growers,  but  will  say  that  only  strong- 
growing  young  trees  under  the  most  favorable  conditions 
are  worthy  of  such  an  attempt  at  renewal. 


FIG.  48.  —  Transcendent  Crab  Grafted  to  Winesap. 

Various  modes  of  graftage  may  be  employed  in  chang- 
ing over  the  top  of  the  old  trees.  Some  method  of  cion- 
grafting  is  generally  used,  although  it  is  not  uncommon,  in 


152 


Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 


stone-fruits  especially,  to  bud  into  new  growths.  Of  the 
methods  of  cion-grafting  two  are  commonly  used  in  the 
West :  cleft-grafting  and  kerf -grafting.  Those  who  have 


FIG.  49.  —  The  Same  as  48,  One  Year  later. 


Top-working  Fruit  Trees 


153 


FIG.  50.  —  The  Same  as  48  Two  Years  later.     Grafts  mostly  Blown  out. 

practiced  grafting  in    the  East  as  well  as  in  the  West 
contend  that  the  wood  of  western  fruit  trees  is  much  more 


154  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

brittle,  and  that  on  account  of  excessive  splitting,  cleft-, 
grafting  is  more  difficult.  This  has  led  to  the  introduction 
of  a  new  method  locally  known  as  kerf-grafting. 

Cleft-grafting.  —  The  operation  of  cleft-grafting  is  very 
simple.  The  limb  to  be  grafted  is  sawed  off  square^, 
leaving  a  smooth,  solid  stump.  The  stub  is  split  down 
about  two  inches  with  a  grafting-chisel  or  knife.  The 
chisel  is  removed  and  the  cleft  is  wedged  open  with  the 
wedge  on  the  back  of  the  knife,  or  a  wedge  provided  for  the 
purpose.  The  cion  should  be  cut  to  contain  three  buds 
and  should  be  of  strong,  well-matured  wood  of  the  previous 
season's  growth.  The  lower  end  is  then  trimmed  to  a 
wedge,  leaving  the  first  bud  a  little  below  the  top  of  the 
wedge,  and  cutting  the  edge  of  the  wedge  opposite  the  bud 
a  little  thinner  than  the  other.  The  cion  is  then  set  firmly 
into  place  with  the  lower  bud  to  the  outside  and  a  little 
below  the  top  of  the  cleft,  being  sure  to  bring  the  inner  bark 
on  the  outer  edge  of  the  wedge  in  contact  with  the  inner  bark 
on  the  stub.  This  is  the  important  step  in  grafting,  as  it  is 
between  these  parts  that  the  union  takes  place.  Some- 
times the  inexperienced  grafter  makes  the  mistake  of  set- 
ting the  cion  flush  with  the  outer  edge  of  the  stock.  On 
large  stubs  with  thick  bark  it  would  almost  be  impossible 
to  set  a  cion  more  illy  matched  than  in  this  way.  Some 
persons  advocate  setting  the  cion  on  a  slant,  the  point  of 
the  wedge  toward  the  center  of  the  stub.  This  insures  a 
contact  of  the  cambium  layers  where  they  cross  and  is  a 
good  suggestion,  since  a  point  of  contact  is  sufficient  for 
a  good  union. 

With  a  cion  properly  set  in  each  edge  of  the  cleft — > 
provided  the  stub  is  large  enough  —  the  wedge  is  re-. 


Top-working  Fruit  Trees  155 

moved.  This  allows  the  cleft  to  tighten  on  the  cions,  the 
greater  thickness  of  the  outer  edge  of  the  wedge-shaped 
portion  of  the  cions  insuring  greater  pressure  at  this  point. 
With  the  removal  of  the  wedge,  the  cleft  should  hold  the 
cions  firmly  in  place.  Wax  should  now  be  applied  to  all 
cut  surfaces,  even  to  the  tips  of  the  cions.  Special  pains 
should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  stub  is  well  covered  be- 
tween the  cions  as  well  as  the  cleft  as  far  as  it  extends  down 
on  the  sides  of  the  stub.  This  prevents  drying  out;  and 
it  is  important  that  it  be  thoroughly  done. 

Kerf -grafting . —  This  system  of  grafting  differs  little  from 
inlaying.  The  stub  is  prepared  as  for  cleft-grafting,  but, 
instead  of  splitting,  saw  cuts  are  made  on  opposite  edges 
of  the  stub  and  trimmed  to  thin,  V-shaped  grooves  with  a 
saddler's  knife.  The  cion  is  then  trimmed  to  fit,  driven 
firmly  into  place,  and  waxed  as  in  cleft-grafting.  With 
a  little  practice,  the  cions  may  be  set  as  firmly  as  in  cleft- 
grafting.  It  is  contended  that  this  method  has  the  advan- 
tage in  speed  and  that  the  cions  are  not  as  easily  blown  out 
in  early  summer.  Cions  are  lost  by  both  methods,  and  if 
properly  performed,  one  is  probably  as  good  as  the  other. 
The  kerf  has  the  advantage  that  more  cions  may  be  set  in 
large  stubs  and  thus  hasten  the  process  of  healing.  The 
same  care  must  be  used  in  setting  the  cion  to  insure  a 
union.  The  latter  system  seems  to  be  especially  adapted 
to  working  with  stone-fruits,  in  which  splitting  is  even 
more  noticeable  than  in  the  apple  and  pear. 

Sharp  tools  that  give  a  smooth-cut  surface  are  essential 
in  all  grafting  work. 

Bark-grafting.  —  Some  orchardmen  advocate  a  method 
known  as  bark-grafting.  In  this  case,  the  stub  is  cut  as 


156  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

before,  the  cion  is  prepared  with  a  long  slope  on  one  side 
and  slipped  between  the  bark  and  sap  wood.  It  is  gen- 
erally necessary  to  slit  the  bark  at  the  point  of  insertion, 
and  very  often  the  bark  is  removed  from  the  base  of  the 
cion  up  to  the  top  of  the  sloping  cut.  The  stub  is  bound 
with  waxed  string,  or  other  material,  to  hold  the  cions 
firmly,  and  it  is  then  waxed,  as  is  the  cleft-grafted  stub. 
The  method  really  has  no  advantages  over  the  others, 
unless  when  compared  with  cleft-grafting  in  large  stubs. 

Terminal-grafting.  —  Another  style  sometimes  employed 
is  that  known  as  terminal-grafting.  This  work  is  generally 
performed  in  the  latter  part  of  June  or  as  soon  as  new 
growth  has  matured  enough  to  allow  a  terminal  bud  to  be 
secured.  On  old  trees,  such  wood  may  be  found  in  June. 
A  twig  that  has  completed  its  growth  may  be  picked  out 
by  the  presence  of  a  well-formed  bud  at  the  tip  and  full 
grown,  or  practically  full  grown,  terminal  leaves.  The 
cions  are  cut  three  or  four  inches  long  and  the  leaves 
practically  all  trimmed  off. 

There  are  different  ways  of  inserting  the  cion.  The  most 
common  method  is  to  cut  a  vertical  slit  in  the  bark  of  the 
stock,  trim  the  lower  end  of  the  cion  with  a  long  sloping 
cut  on  one  side,  and  then  slip  it  under  the  bark  at  an  angle 
about  45°  with  the  slit.  The  cut  surface  of  the  cion  should 
rest  upon  the  wood  of  the  stock.  It  is  not  necessary  to 
wrap  or  even  wax  the  wound. 

The  cions  start  into  growth  the  same  season,  but  the  top 
of  the  stock  is  left  until  the  following  spring.  The  method 
seems  to  work  well.  It  may  prove  to  be  a  practical  way 
of  supplying  lower  limbs  on  young  trees  headed  too  high. 
When  one  neglects  to  remove  the  top  when  such  grafting 


Top-working  Fruit  Trees  157 

/ 

is  performed  in  the  lower  part  of  old  trees,  these  cions 
readily  form  fruiting-wood,  generally  bearing  the  third 
season.  It  is  suggested  that  it  may  be  the  proper  course  to 
take  as  a  means  of  securing  specimens  of  new  varieties  in 
the  shortest  length  of  time. 

Choosing  the  stubs.  —  There  is  much  to  be  gained  by 
the  proper  selection  of  stubs  into  which  cions  are  to  be  set. 
A  too  common  practice  is  to  remove  the  whole  top  the  first 
year  and  graft  all  the  stubs.  It  is  surprising  that  some 
good  results  come  from  such  a  practice.  More  often,  how- 
ever, this  proves  too  much  for  the  tree  and  it  fails  even 
after  the  grafts  have  made  a  good  start.  It  may  linger 
two  or  three  years  and  then  die  from  no  other  cause  than 
the  severe  cutting-back,  although  the  growers  are  prone  to 
attribute  it  to  some  other  affliction.  The  cutting  away 
of  the  greater  part  of  the  top  may  be  advisable  in  top- 
working  stone-fruits.  The  pear  will  withstand  much  more 
abuse  in  this  respect  than  the  apple. 

A  far  better  plan  in  all  cases  is  to  cut  away  only  enough 
limbs  to  carry  cions  for  a  good  top.  This  will  generally  be 
about  half  of  the  tree,  as  in  most  cases  six  stubs  will  pro- 
vide for  a  good  top.  The  working  of  more  stubs  results  in 
a  too  dense  top  or  necessitates  their  removal  later.  The 
remaining  limbs  may  be  shortened,  but  the  foliage  is  needed 
to  protect  the  stubs  and  trunk  from  sun-scald  as  well  as 
to  supply  nourishment.  If  the  stubs  are  well  chosen,  the 
remaining  limbs  will  do  much  to  protect  the  young  grafts 
from  wind  and  especially  from  being  brushed  out  by  pass- 
ing teams  and  orchard  machinery.  It  is  well  to  choose 
inside  limbs  for  grafting  as  they  are  best  protected,  but 
care  must  be  taken  not  to  contract  the  head  of  the  tree  too 


158  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

much.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  top- worked  trees 
tend  to  grow  upright ;  but  it  is  a  difficulty  that  may  be 
largely  overcome  by  judicious  pruning. 

After  the  cions  have  made  one  year's  growth,  much  of 
the  remaining  top  may  be  removed,  but  it  should  seldom 
all  be  removed  from  old  trees  before  the  second  year. 
If  some  stubs  have  met  with  accidents  or  have  failed  to 
start  the  cions,  or  if  the  shape  of  the  tree  or  a  scarcity 
of  scaffold  limbs  has  prevented  a  full  top  being  placed 
the  first  spring,  it  may  be  completed  the  second. 

While  we  sometimes  see  grafts  doing  well  in  stubs  six 
inches  in  diameter,  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  such 
grafts  will  make  a  strong  union  or  a  long-lived  tree.  The 
wisdom  of  working  limbs  over  three  inches  in  diameter 
is  to  be  doubted.  In  the  choosing  of  stubs,  the  grafter 
should  remember  that  large  wounds,  properly  made,  heal 
more  readily  than  large  stubs.  Choose  the  smaller  limbs 
for  grafting  even  though  the  later  removal  of  the  top  may 
necessitate  the  cutting  of  larger  limbs  lower  down.  It 
is  better  to  raise  the  head  of  the  tree  than  to  work  large 
stubs.  Figure  51,  showing  a  two-year-old  top  on  a  pear 
tree,  illustrates  this  point;  notice  the  large  wounds  below 
the  grafted  stubs. 

Season  for  Grafting.  —  The  ideal  time  for  grafting  is 
just  as  the  buds  are  beginning  to  swell.  While  cions  may 
be  set  earlier  than  this,  there  is  danger  of  their  drying  out 
before  a  union  is  established.  Should  one  care  to  pro- 
long the  season,  it  is  better  to  run  late  than  to  begin 
early.  The  opening  of  the  season  will  vary  from  the  first 
of  March  to  the  first  of  April  or  even  later  in  some  parts 
of  the  West,  and  may  be  extended  until  the  first  leaves 


Top-working  Fruit  fr/ees 


159 


are  practically  full  grown.     Good  results  cannot  be  ex- 
pected from   cions  set   later  than  this.     Some   persons 


FIG.   51.  —  Showing   Pear  Tree   Grafted   in   Small  Limbs.     The   Large 
Lower  Limbs  were  Removed  later. 

go  through  the  orchard  in  winter  and  remove  the  tops 
of  the  stubs  that  are  to  be  grafted,  cutting  them  at  least 


160  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

a  foot  above  where  the  cions  are  to  be  placed.  This 
saves  some  time,  and  by  hauling  the  brush  out  before 
the  grafts  are  set,  it  saves  some  of  them  from  being  knocked 
out  by  careless  men  in  removing  it  later.  When  ready 
to  graft,  the  stub  is  recut  from  a  foot  to  eight  inches 
lower. 

Protecting  the  Body.  —  Since  the  removal  of  any  con- 
siderable part  of  the  top  often  exposes  the  body  of  the 
tree  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  it  is  well  in  the  arid 
regions  to  whitewash  the  trunk  and  main  branches.  The 
whitewash  reflects  the  rays  of  the  sun,  and  by  such  an 
application  many  cases  of  sun-scald  may  be  avoided. 
(See  Formula,  p.  390.)  The  wash  can  best  be  applied 
with  a  spray  pump.  A  good  coating  can  only  be  secured 
with  two  applications,  the  second  to  follow  as  soon  as  the 
first  is  dry. 

Cion  Wood.  —  In  this  connection,  it  is  well  to  say  a 
word  about  the  selection  of  cion  wood  for  grafting.  The 
man  who  is  interested  in  his  bearing  orchard  has  early 
learned  that  the  individual  trees  in  the  plantation  show 
a  great  variation,  especially  in  productiveness,  and  very 
often  in  the  size,  color,  and  quality  of  the  fruit.  Some 
of  this  variation  may  be  accounted  for  in  various  ways, 
but,  after  all,  we  are  coming  to  believe  that,  environ- 
mental conditions  being  equal,  no  two  trees  are  constitu- 
tionally alike  in  bearing  habits.  It  is  a  natural  variation. 
There  are  trees  that  never  bear  well,  and  cions  from  such 
trees  will,  no  doubt,  produce  trees  very  much  like  them. 
Mark  your  favorite  trees  and  select  cion  wood  from  them. 

The  cion  wood  should  be  one  year  old,  strong  and  well 
matured,  but  not  overgrown.  The  terminal  shoots  from 


Top-working  Fruit  Trees 


161 


trees  that  have  made  a  growth  of  12 
to  18  inches  make  excellent  cions.  The 
question  is  often  asked  as  to  the  use  of 
watersprouts.  The  term ' '  watersprout ' ' 
may  mean  different  things  to  different 
persons.  By  watersprouts  we  generally 
mean  rank  growth  from  adventitious 
buds;  and  such  growths  with  immature 
tips,  weak  buds  far  apart,  and  pithy 
centers  make  very  poor  cion  wood. 
Otherwise,  any  new  wood  with  well- 
developed  buds  comparatively  close  to- 
gether may  be  used  for  cions.  The 
statement  sometimes  made  that  water- 
sprouts  never  produce  fruit  is  errone- 
ous. Figure  52  shows  the  difference 
between  good  and  poor  cion  wood. 

Cion  wood  should  be  gathered  in  the 
fall,  preferably  as  soon  as  the  leaves 
have  fallen,  and  stored  until  spring. 
The  object  is  not  to  avoid  winter  in- 
jury, as  some  think,  but  to  keep  the 
cions  in  a  dormant  condition.  Few 
realize  that  buds  complete  the  resting 
period  early  in  the  winter  and  under 
favorable  conditions  may  begin  to  swell 
before  the  first  of  January.  While  the 
unobserving  man  may  say  that  there 
is  no  difference  in  the  buds  of  the 
young  growth  in  early  December  and 
in  February,  there  may  be  a  marked 


FIG.  52.  —  Good  and 
Poor  Cion  Wood. 
Good  on  the  Right, 


162  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

difference  in  some  climates.  The  open  winters  in  the 
Middle  West  are  especially  likely  to  start  early  growth. 
The  object  of  keeping  the  cions  dormant  is  to  allow  time 
for  a  partial  union  before  the  buds  are  started  into  growth 
by  the  warm  days  of  the  grafting  season.  Cions  with 
buds  well  swollen  often  throw  leaf  surface  before  a 
sufficiently  strong  union  has  been  made.  The  result  is 
the  exhaustion  of  the  stored-up  food  supply  and  moisture 
of  the  cion  to  a  point  that  may  cause  its  death. 

The  cions  may  be  stored  in  sand  in  a  cool  corner  of 
the  cellar  or  buried  out-of-doors.  The  main  object  is 
to  keep  them  cool  and  moist  and  away  from  fluctuating 
temperatures.  An  excellent  plan  is  to  bury  them  on 
the  north  side  of  a  building  or  in  some  spot  that  is  shaded 
most  of  the  day.  They  need  not  be  buried  deep,  from 
twelve  to  eighteen  inches  being  sufficient  in  a  well-shaded 
spot. 

Growing  the  Top.  —  It  would  hardly  seem  wise  to  leave 
the  subject  of  top-working  old  trees  without  some  com- 
ment on  future  treatment  of  the  grafts.  The  setting  of 
the  cions  is  only  the  first  step  in  working  over  the  tree. 

Should  we  stop  here,  a  most  miserable  failure  or,  at 
least  a  poor  top,  might  be  the  result.  Many  a  good 
"catch"  is  ruined  by  neglecting  the  pruning  the  first  two 
seasons. 

In  the  first  season  the  grafts  should  make  a  very  rank 
growth  and  they  will  require  some  pinching-back  to  save 
them  from  becoming  top-heavy  and  consequently  easily 
blown  out.  The  common  practice  is  to  head-in  the  rapidly 
growing  shoots  when  they  have  attained  a  length  of 
eighteen  inches  to  two  feet.  This  forces  branches  from 


Top-working  Fruit  Trpes  163 

below;  and  if  growth  becomes  too  heavy,  these  secondary 
branches  may  need  cutting  back  before  the  season  is  over. 
This  pruning  insures  stockiness  of  the  new  growth  and 
throws  much  of  the  energies  of  the  top  into  a  good  union. 

The  growth  of  suckers  or  watersprouts  from  the  stock 
should  not  be  allowed  to  any  great  extent.  Should  the 
stubs  be  exposed  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  it  is  well 
to  leave  some  of  this  growth,  pinching  it  back  to  cause 
it  to  form  a  dense  shade.  Unless  needed  for  protection, 
it  is  well  to  rub  the  sprouts  off  as  fast  as  they  appear. 

The  following  spring  the  system  of  pruning  should 
resemble  very  much  that  of  pruning  young  trees.  The 
grafts  should  usually  be  cut  back  to  not  over  eighteen 
inches  in  length.  They  may  be  cut  even  shorter  if  the 
growth  has  not  been  satisfactory.  If  all  three  buds  have 
started  from  a  cion,  it  is  well  to  remove  all  but  one  to 
avoid  crowding.  As  a  rule,  the  growth  from  the  lowest 
bud  will  be  the,  strongest  and  should  be  retained.  Should 
the  formation  of  the  top  allow  it,  a  second  growth  may 
be  left.  If  the  grafts  have  been  set  close  in  near  the  head 
of  the  tree,  they  will  require  some  pruning  for  the  purpose 
of  spreading  the  top.  The  general  tendency  is  for  the 
top-worked  tree  to  grow  too  compact.  Cut  the  grafts 
back  to  one  of  the  strong  outside  branches  started  by  the 
first  pinching-back  and  it  will  give  them  a  start  in  the  right 
direction. 

When  two  cions  start  in  the  same  stub  and  the  stub 
is  less  than  three  inches  in  diameter,  one  should  be  re- 
moved. Keep  the  stronger,  or  if  there  should  be  little 
difference,  the  one  best  situated  to  help  make  a  good 
top.  Cut  the  other  off  close,  even  to  removing  a  small 


164 


Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 


corner  of  the  stub  on  that  side,  as  the  wound  will  heal 
better.  Should  the  stub  be  over  three  inches  in  diameter, 
there  is  some  reason  for  leaving  the  extra  graft  another 
year.  It  will  help  to  callous  over  the  stub,  and  it  may 


FIG.  53.  — A  Well-formed  Grafted  Tree. 

be  removed  the  following  spring,  leaving  a  comparatively 
small  wound.  If  left  longer,  or  until  the  two  grow  to- 
gether, the  result  is  a  bad  crotch  and  sometimes  a  pressure 
that  may  actually  split  the  stub. 


Top-working  Fruit  Trees  165 

Subsequent  pruning  will  consist  in  such  cutting-back 
as  will  help  form  a  stocky  and  well-shaped  top.  They 
will  demand  the  same  attention  as  young  trees.  Spread 
the  top  by  pruning  to  outside  buds  or  branches  and  do 
not  pay  too  much  attention  to  the  small  wood.  Some  of 
the  small  branches  may  require  cutting-out  or  clipping- 
back,  but  remember  that  in  this  we  have  the  start  for 
early  fruiting-wood.  In  Figure  53  is  shown  a  well- 
formed  top-grafted  tree.  Small  limbs  were  chosen  for 
grafting  and  enough  of  the  original  top  was  left  to  afford 
protection  and  to  provide  nourishment.  Fewer  grafts 
would  probably  have  answered  the  purpose  just  as  well. 

TOP-WORKING  YOUNG  TREES 

There  is  a  growing  conviction  among  fruit-growers  that 
better  results  may  come  from  planting  vigorous  young 
trees  of  some  strong-growing  kind  to  be  later  worked  over 
to  the  desired  variety.  In  the  opening  remarks  on  this 
subject,  mention  was  made  of  the  desirability  of  working 
weak-growing  kinds  on  stronger  root-systems,  as  well  as 
top-working,  as  a  means  of  lessening  loss  from  attacks  of 
root  troubles  and  woolly  aphis.  The  embarrassment  of 
growing  the  orchard  to  a  bearing  age  only  to  find  some 
of  the  trees  not  true  to  name  may  be  avoided  by  this  plan 
of  starting  the  young  orchard.  The  fruit-grower  has  ob- 
served also  that  few  trees  of  the  same  variety  are  alike  in 
bearing  habit  and  character  of  fruit,  as  we  have  said.  No 
doubt,  many  growers  have  some  particular  tree  in  their 
bearing  orchard  that  is  better  and  nearer  their  ideal  than 
all  others.  By  choosing  grafting  wood  from  this  tree, 


166  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

a  young  orchard  may  be  grown  as  near  like  it  as  is 
possible. 

In  top-working  young  trees,  it  is  a  common  practice 
to  set  the  trees  where  they  are  to  grow,  and  after  the 
scaffold  limbs  are  well  formed,  to  graft  or  bud  into  these 
the  future  top.  Some  eastern  men  have  advocated 
purchasing  two-year-old  trees  in  the  fall  (trees  in  which 
the  head  is  already  formed)  to  be  grafted-over  indoors 
in  December.  In  the  West,  and  especially  on  a  large 
scale,  this  system  would  hardly  seem  to  be  practicable. 
The  method  in  this  case  is  whip-grafting. 

Grafting  Young  Trees.  —  In  grafting  young  trees  in 
the  field,  it  is  probably  well  to  perform  the  operation  as 
early  in  the  life  of  a  tree  as  possible.  As  soon  as  a  good 
strong  framework  can  be  secured,  the  tree  is  ready  for 
top-working.  The  small  size  of  the  stubs  makes  cleft- 
grafting  difficult  and  kerf-grafting  almost  out  of  the 
question.  Some  growers,  however,  report  good  success 
in  cleft-grafting  young  trees  after  two  years'  growth 
from  a  yearling  whip.  In  this  case,  the  stubs  must  be 
bound  with  waxed  cloth  or  other  material  to  hold  the  cion 
firmly,  and  then  waxed  as  in  cleft-grafting  larger  stubs. 

Another  mode,  known  as  whip-grafting,  is  well  adapted 
to  working  these  small  stubs  of  young  trees.  The  process 
is  well  illustrated  in  Figure  54.  With  this  style  of  graft- 
ing, it  may  be  possible  to  set  the  cions  after  one  year's 
growth  in  the  field,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether  much  time 
will  be  gained  by  such  practice.  The  cion  should  be  as 
near  the  size  of  the  stub  as  possible,  if  anything  a  little 
smaller.  The  cambium  of  the  stock  and  cion  is  matched 
only  on  one  side,  paying  no  attention  to  the  other.  The 


Top-working  Fruit  Ti'ees  167 

joint  should  be  well  wrapped  with  waxed  cloth,  and,  to  be 
doubly  sure  that  all  air  is  excluded,  it  may  be  painted  over 
with  warm  wax. 

In  grafting  young  trees,  it  is  a  common  practice  to 
remove  all  of  the  top,  placing  cions  in  those  arms  that 
one  wishes  to  keep.  It  is  always  well  to 
work  a  few  extra  stubs,  as  accidents  may 
befall  some  of  the  cions.  .  „ 

The  season  for  top-grafting  the  young        1  i  / 

trees  is  the  same  as  for  old  trees.  While 
top- working  the  old  trees  tends  to  hasten 
the  bearing  of  the  cions,  it  is  doubtful 
whether  top-working  young  trees  in- 
duces earlier  fruitfulness. 

Budding  the  Young  Trees.  —  Budding 
is,  no  doubt,  the  simpler  method  of  put- 
ting a  new  top  on  young  trees.  While 
the  process  of  budding  is  a  little  more 
delicate  than  that  of  grafting,  with  a 
little  practice  the  average  man  can  get 
very  satisfactory  results.  Buds  should 
be  placed  as  soon  as  the  top  is  well 
formed,  setting  one  or  two  in  each  scaf-  FIG.  54.— The  Oper- 
fold  limb  that  is  to  be  retained.  The  %£££*  Whip" 
buds  are  generally  set  from  six  to  twelve 
inches  from  the  main  stem,  depending  on  the  formation  of 
the  head.  Trees  two  years  old  when  set  may  generally 
be  budded  the  following  fall,  and  should  yearling  whips 
make  a  strong  growth,  the  arms  may  be  large  enough  to 
receive  buds  in  September.  Any  stem  as  large  as  a  lead 
pencil  may  be  budded  easily.  Arms  in  which  buds  fail  to 


168  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

start  may  be  grafted  the  following  spring  or  budded  in 
June.  Should  arms  fail  to  appear  in  the  proper  place, 
it  is  possible  to  supply  them  by  setting  buds  directly 
into  the  body  of  the  young  tree. 

When  the  buds  begin  to  push  into  new  growth,  they 
will  require  about  the  same  care  as  young  grafts.  They 
will  need  some  pinching-back  to  strengthen  the  stem 
and  to  overcome  the  tendency  to  become  top-heavy. 
With  the  possible  exception  of  young  trees  budded  in 
late  June,  all  growth  from  the  original  stock  should  be 
removed  as  it  appears. 

Buds  may  be  set  in  June,  or  in  August  and  September. 
For  June-budding  the  bud-sticks  are  cut  as  soon  as  good 
firm  new  wood  can  be  secured.  New  wood  with  buds 
mature  enough  for  budding  may  generally  be  cut  from 
old  trees  the  latter  part  of  June.  As  soon  as  the  buds 
unite  with  the  stock,  the  bandage  is  cut  and  the  part  of 
the  stock  above  the  bud  is  removed.  In  June-budding 
it  is  well  to  leave  some  of  the  new  growth  that  springs 
from  the  arms  below  the  bud.  This  takes  the  surplus 
sap  and  helps  nourish  the  roots  until  the  buds  are  well 
started.  Wood  from  buds  set  in  June  may  not  mature 
well  in  our  climate,  and  so  is  susceptible  to  winter  injury 
during  severe  winters.  By  careful  watering,  such  growth 
may  mature  very  well. 

When  practicable,  fall  budding  should  be  given  the 
preference.  In  the  case  of  peach  trees,  June-budding 
is  preferred  where,  in  early  spring,  attacks  of  twig  borers 
often  destroy  buds  set  the  previous  fall.  In  the  apple 
and  pear  it  is  more  convenient  to  bud  in  the  fall.  Arms 
that  are  large  enough  to  bud  in  early  spring  were  large 


Top-working  Fruit  Trtes  169 

enough  the  previous  September,  so  that  one  really  gains 
rather  than  loses  time  by  budding  in  the  fall.  Most 
budding  is  done  in  the  fall. 

In  fall  budding,  the  buds  are  taken  from  the  current 
year's  growth.  Buds  may  be  inserted  in  wood  of  one, 
two,  or  three  years'  growth.  The  stiffness  of  the  bark 
of  the  older  wood  makes  budding  difficult.  The  heavy 
bark  not  only  makes  the  insertion  of  the  bud  difficult, 
but  in  drying  out  it  curls  away  from  the  bud  and  exposes 
it  to  the  air.  The  position  for  the  bud  is  chosen  with 
reference  to  the  prevailing  wind,  protection  from  the  sun's 
rays,  or  best  to  form  the  top  of  the  tree.  It  is  well  to 
place  the  bud  on  the  shady  side  of  the  stock,  if  possible. 
Should  the  locality  be  subject  to  strong  prevailing  winds, 
the  bud  will  withstand  more  wind  if  placed  on  the  side 
of  the  stock  toward  the  wind. 

The  simplest  form  of  budding  is  that  known  as  shield- 
budding  or  T-budding.  A  T-shaped  incision  is  made  in 
the  bark  and  the  corners  of  the  bark  below  the  transverse 
cut  raised  to  facilitate  starting  the  bud  into  the  opening. 
The  bud  is  then  cut  from  the  bud-stick  by  starting  the  knife 
half  an  inch  below  the  bud,  cutting  under  and  to  about 
the  same  distance  above  the  bud.  This  gives  a  long  bud, 
which  is  especially  desirable  in  our  dry  climate.  In  cut- 
ting under  the  bud,  the  knife  should  be  run  deep  enough 
to  leave  a  small  shield  of  wood.  Figure  55  shows  the 
various  steps  in  the  process  of  shield-budding  (which  is 
the  usual  mode) . 

A  simpler  method  of  lifting  the  bud,  at  least  for  the 
beginner,  is  to  start  the  knife  as  before,  and  cut  sharply 
into  the  wood  to  about  one-third  the  diameter  of  the  stick 


170 


Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 


and  then  upward  under  the  bud,  making  a  tongue  about 
an  inch  long.  The  knife  is  then  run  across  the  tongue 
half  an  inch  above  the  bud,  cutting  through  and  lifting 
the  bark  at  this  point.  The  bud  is  then  grasped  between 
the  thumb  and  first  finger  and  lifted, 
leaving  the  wood  on  the  stick,  as 
shown  at  b.  While  the  removal  of 
the  wood  from  under  the  bud  is  no 
particular  advantage,  the  method  is 
simple  and  gives  the  inexperienced 
budder  a  larger  percentage  of  good 
buds.  The  writers  have  lifted 
thousands  of  buds  in  this  way  with 
the  best  of  success.  It  is  difficult 
to  cut  buds  in  this  way  from  some 
varieties  of  cherry  and  plum  with 
thin  bark,  but  it  works  well  on  the 
apple,  pear,  peach,  apricot,  and  the 
heavy-barked  plum.  Of  course,  it 
would  be  impossible  to  lift  dormant 
buds  in  this  way  for  spring  budding. 
The  bud  is  slipped  into  place,  as 
shown  at  a,  and  well  wrapped  with 
raffia  or  soft  wrapping  twine.  About 
four  wraps  below  and  three  above, 
so  spaced  as  to  close  the  whole 
opening,  is  sufficient.  In  wrapping, 
the  common  practice  is  to  start  be- 
low, and  by  crossing  over  the  first 
end  and  running  the  last  end  under  the  bud  is  wrapped 
without  a  knot.  The  tying  material  is  usually  cut  in  the 


FIG.    55.  —  The    Opera- 
tion of  Budding. 


Top-working  Fruit  Tmes  171 

desired  lengths  beforehand,  and  if  raffia  is  used,  it  should 
be  kept  moist,  as  it  ties  better. 

On  healthy  young  wood,  the  buds  will  unite  within  ten 
days  to  two  weeks.  Then  the  wrapping  should  be  cut 
by  drawing  a  knife  across  it  on  the  side  of  the  stock  op- 
posite the  bud.  Should  the  stock  be  making  a  slow  growth, 
there  need  be  no  hurry  about  cutting  the  tie.  The  only 
thing  to  be  guarded  against  is  that  the  wrap  does  not  cut 
into  the  bark,  for  this  pressure  interferes  with  the  flow 
of  sap,  and  tends  to  throw  the  bud  into  premature  growth; 
this  often  means  a  loss  of  the  September  bud. 

The  bud  set  in  August  and  September  should  remain 
dormant  over  winter.  The  following  spring,  as  soon  as 
the  buds  on  the  top  of  the  stock  begin  to  push  out,  the 
stock  is  cut  away.  Should  the  stock  be  cut  off  too  early 
in  the  spring,  or  too  close,  there  is  danger  of  the  stub 
drying  out  to  the  injury  of  the  bud.  Some  persons  recom- 
mend leaving  a  longer  stub  to  which  the  young  growing 
shoot  from  the  bud  may  be  tied  until  it  is  well  estab- 
lished. This  saves  some  buds  from  being  blown  out,  but 
necessitates  a  second  cutting  in  midsummer  to  allow  the 
stub  to  heal  over. 

We  have  said  that  buds  for  fall  budding  should  be  taken 
from  the  current  year's  growth.  The  common  practice 
is  to  cut  the  terminal  growth  from  bearing  trees.  The 
leaves  are  trimmed  off  at  once,  leaving  a  small  part  of 
the  leafstalk  with  which  to  handle  the  bud.  Bud- 
sticks  trimmed  in  this  way  may  be  stored  in  a  cool,  damp 
place  and  kept  for  some  time  without  injury.  The  leaf- 
stalks, however,  will  loosen  and  drop  off  in  many  cases 
if  stored  over  ten  days;  this  does  no  harm,  but  some 


172  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

budders  miss  the  little  handle  in  inserting  the  bud.  The 
first  few  buds  at  the  base  of  the  stick  are  generally  poorly 
developed  and  should  be  discarded,  while  those  near  the 
tip  are  too  immature  to  be  used.  As  a  rule,  not  over 
half  of  the  new  growth  cut  in  early  September  will  carry 
buds  suitable  for  budding.  The  sticks  should  be  carried 
in  a  damp  cloth  to  avoid  drying  out. 


CHAPTER  X 

THE  PROPAGATION  OF  ORCHARD   TREES 

PLANTS  are  propagated  by  seeds,  separating  and  divid- 
ing, layers,  cuttings,  and  by  budding  and  grafting.  The 
grower  of  orchard-fruits  is  interested  more  particularly 
in  the  propagation  of  trees,  so  that  only  this  phase  of  the 
subject  will  be  considered. 

Propagation  of  the  Apple 

In  the  case  of  the  apple,  the  stocks  are  grown  from  seed. 
Many  seedlings  are  imported  from  Europe,  particularly 
from  France,  but  many  seedlings  are  also  grown  in  various 
parts  of  the  United  States  French  crab  stock  is  often 
spoken  of  as  being  exceptionally  vigorous.  Such  seedlings 
are  grown  merely  from  the  seed  of  wild  seedling  apple 
trees  of  that  country.  They  are  of  the  same  species  as 
our  common  apple.  This  stock  probably  does  have  the 
merit  of  being  less  variable  than  that  produced  from 
more  highly  developed  varieties  that  do  not  come  true  to 
seed. 

In  this  country,  the  seeds  are  commonly  washed  from 
pomace  from  cider  mills.  They  are  sown  at  once,  or  at 
least  before  they  become  dried  out,  in  narrow  drills  in 

173 


174  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

well-prepared  land.  At  the  end  of  the  first  season,  the 
little  trees  are  dug  and  the  largest  may  be  root-grafted 
during  the  winter  or  planted  in  nursery  rows  to  be  budded 
the  following  summer.  The  smaller  sizes  must  be  grown 
another  season  before  they  are  suitable  for  working. 

Dwarf  apple  trees  are  secured  by  top-working  our  com- 
mon varieties  on  stocks  of  small-stature  forms  of  apple. 
There  are  two  dwarf  races  or  varieties  used  for  this 
purpose,  known  as  the  Paradise  and  the  Doucin,  both 
of  which  are  forms  of  the  common  apple.  The  Paradise 
is  mostly  used,  as  it  gives  the  smaller  trees,  they  being 
mere  shrubs.  The  cions,  being  of  much  stronger  growing 
varieties,  are  not  sufficiently  nourished  to  enable  them  to 
make  a  vigorous  growth;  consequently,  the  trees  always 
remain  small,  but  most  of  them  will  require  severe  prun- 
ing to  prevent  them  from  making  a  more  vigorous  growth 
than  is  desired. 

No  small  amount  of  interest  has  been  taken  in  recent 
years  in  the  possibility  of  combating  woolly  aphis  by 
propagation  trees  on  Northern  Spy  roots,  as  this  variety 
is  practically  immune  from  attacks  by  this  insect.  Seed 
from  Northern  Spy  apples  will  not  reproduce  the  variety ; 
consequently  other  means  must  be  resorted  to.  One 
of  the  common  methods  is  to  graft  a  long  Northern  Spy 
cion  on  a  short  piece-root.  If  planted  deep,  the  cion 
will  send  out  roots;  then  the  trees  may  be  transplanted 
at  the  end  of  the  season,  when  the  nurse-root  is  removed. 
The  foster-mother  style  of  root-grafting  may  be  used  to 
advantage  for  this  purpose.  The  top  of  this  tree  may 
be  worked  over  to  the  desired  variety,  and  the  largest 
lateral  roots  may  be  used  for  further  propagation. 


The  Propagation  of  Orchard  Trees          175 

Root-grafts  are  made  by  inserting  a  cion  on  a  root  or 
piece  of  a  root,  usually  of  a  seedling  tree.  When  the 
entire  root  of  the  seedling  is  used,  a  whole  root-graft  is 
the  result.  More  commonly,  however,  sections  of  roots, 
about  three  inches  long,  are  used.  There  has  been  much 
controversy  over  the  superiority  of  the  whole-root  over 
the  piece-root,  or  vice  versa,  but  the  consensus  of  opinion 
now  seems  to  be  that  there  is  very  little  difference  between 
the  two  when  both  are  well  grown  and  equally  vigorous. 
However,  a  small  weak  piece-root  will  usually  result  in  an 
inferior  tree. 

Propagation  by  budding  has  rapidly  grown  in  favor, 
until  at  the  present  time  a  large  percentage  of  the  nursery 
stock  is  propagated  in  this  way.  This  is  particularly 
true  in  the  large  nursery  centers  of  the  East. 

The  seedlings  to  be  budded  are  usually  transplanted  to 
nursery  rows  in  the  spring  after  they  have  made  one 
season's  growth  (from  the  seed).  The  succeeding  August 
the  majority  of  them  should  be  large  enough  to  bud. 
The  stocks  are  prepared  for  the  budder  by  removing  the 
leaves  and  branches  from  around  their  bases.  The  bud- 
ders  follow  and  insert  the  buds  in  the  stocks  as  close  to 
the  ground  as  will  admit  of  ease  in  working,  and  preferably 
on  the  north  side  of  the  tree.  Boys  are  usually  employed 
to  tie  the  buds.  A  skilled  workman  will  set  3000  or  more 
buds  in  a  day,  but  2000  is  considered  to  be  a  good  day's 
work. 

In  about  two  weeks  after  the  buds  are  set,  the  parts 
should  be  united.  The  bandages  must  now  be  cut,  for 
if  left  too  long,  constriction  of  the  stems  and  interference 
with  nutrition  will  result. 


176  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

The  buds  remain  dormant  until  the  following  spring, 
when  they  start  into  growth  with  the  rest  of  the  tree. 
The  stocks  are  now  cut  off  just  above  the  buds,  and  the 
strength  of  the  strong  root  forces  the  bud  into  vigorous 
growth,  and  new  tops  are  soon  formed,  often  growing  to 
a  height  of  six  feet  the  first  season.  It  is  in  this  way  that 
strong  yearling  whips  are  produced,  a  growth  difficult  to 
secure  in  root-grafted  trees. 

As  has  been  noted  elsewhere,  we  prefer  yearling  trees 
and,  generally  speaking,  well-grown  yearlings  can  be 
secured  only  by  budding.  We  also  think  that  in  the 
majority  of  cases  better-rooted  trees  are  secured  by  this 
method. 

Propagation  of  the  Pear 

Pear  trees  are  propagated  in  the  same  way  as  apple 
trees,  although  in  practice  they  are  seldom  root-grafted, 
as  the  trees  produced  by  this  method  are  usually  un- 
satisfactory. 

Pear  trees  are  dwarfed  by  working  pear  cions  on  quince 
stocks.  The  stocks  are  usually  budded.  The  buds  are 
set  as  close  to  the  ground  as  possible,  for  the  reason  that 
it  is  desirable  to  have  the  point  of  union  below  ground 
when  the  trees  are  planted  in  the  orchard. 

Some  varieties  of  pear  do  not  take  well  on  quince  stock; 
consequently  a  system  known  as  double-working  must 
be  resorted  to  if  such  kinds  are  to  be  dwarfed.  This 
consists  in  working  the  quince  to  a  variety  of  pear  that 
is  known  to  make  a  good  union  and,  after  this  top  has 
attained  sufficient  size,  to  bud  or  graft  it  to  the  desired 
variety. 


TJie  Propagation  of  Orchard  Trees  177 

Propagation  of  the  Peach 

Peach  trees  are  almost  universally  budded.  The  pits 
from  which  stocks  are  grown  should  be  collected  as  soon 
as  possible  after  the  fruit  is  ripe,  so  that  they  may  not  dry 
out.  They  may  be  planted  in  the  nursery  row  at  once, 
or  they  may  be  kept  in  bulk  in  any  place  where  they  will 
not  become  dry  and  where  they  will  be  exposed  to  the 
action  of  frost.  This  treatment  will  result  in  cracking 
most  of  the  pits;  those  that  are  not  cracked  at  the  open- 
ing of  spring  must  be  cracked  by  hand  if  prompt  germina- 
tion is  desired;  otherwise  some  of  them  may  lie  dormant 
until  the  following  spring. 

If  the  seedlings  do  well,  most  of  them  will  be  large 
enough  for  budding  the  August  succeeding  sowing,  when 
they  are  handled  the  same  as  apple  trees.  The  seedlings 
that  are  too  small  for  budding  the  first  season  may  be 
cut  back  to  the  ground  the  following  spring,  and  thus 
a  vigorous  growth  may  be  secured. 

June-budded  peach  trees  are  usually  produced  in  the 
South,  where  seedlings  of  a  size  to  admit  of  budding  are 
secured  by  June  of  the  year  in  which  the  seed  germinates. 
As  soon  as  the  buds  have  " taken,"  a  part  of  the  top  is 
removed,  and  after  they  have  made  a  vigorous  start,  the 
top  is  entirely  removed.  Salable  trees  are  produced  by 
this  method  in  one  season.  When  well  grown,  there  is  no 
objection  to  a  June  bud,  but  unless  the  season  is  very  long, 
there  is  always  the  danger  of  the  tops  being  immature 
when  cold  weather  comes  on. 

Peaches  may  be  worked  on  plum  seedlings,  but  this  is 
unusual.  In  those  cases  in  which  numerous  sprouts  occur 

N 


178  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

in  the  peach  orchard,  it  is  probable  that  plum  seedlings 
were  used  for  stocks. 

Propagation  of  the  Apricot,  Plum,  and  Cherry 

The  apricot  may  be  propagated  on  either  apricot, 
peach,  or  plum  stocks,  but  the  peach  is  most  used.  The 
methods  of  propagation  are  the  same  as  for  the  peach. 

Plum  trees  are  worked  on  a  variety  of  plum  stocks, 
as  there  is  a  number  of  different  species.  Special  ad- 
vantages are  asserted  for  some  of  them.  Peach  seedlings 
are  also  sometimes  used.  Probably  the  best  stocks  come 
from  seeds  of  inferior  forms  of  the  common  domestica 
plum.  These  usually  come  true  to  seed,  and  thus  give 
more  uniform  seedlings.  Budding  is  the  usual  method 
employed  in  propagating  plums,  although  root-grafts  are 
sometimes  made. 

Cherries  are  also  commonly  budded.  The  seeds  of 
several  wild  or  spontaneous  species  are  used  in  growing 
stocks,  the  Mazzard  and  the  Mahaleb  being  most  in  favor. 


CHAPTER  XI 
THE  TILLAGE  OF  ORCHARDS 

CLEAN  tillage  has  been  practiced  by  the  majority  of 
arid-country  orchardists  from  the  time  the  first  trees  were 
planted.  It  would  be  difficult  to  explain  just  why  this 
plan  has  been  followed,  but  it  is  probable  that  it  was 
copied  from  California.  While  a  certain  amount  of 
tillage  is  necessary,  we  wish  to  state  emphatically  that 
we  do  not  believe  in  any  system  by  which  the  soil  is  ex- 
posed to  the  action  of  arid  sunshine  during  the  heat  of 
summer.  In  fact,  we  hold  that  this  practice  has  been 
very  much  overdone  and  that  the  older  orchards  are  in 
some  cases  beginning  to  show  the  effects.  We  may  well 
profit  by  the  experience  of  fruit-growers  in  other  states, 
and  in  this  connection  the  following  quotation  should  be 
instructive :  — 

"For  a  quarter  of  a  century  great  areas  of  vineyards 
yielded  thousands  of  tons  of  grapes.  All  these  years, 
under  the  stimulus  of  success,  these  same  areas  of  land 
received  clean,  annual,  and  (may  we  not  truthfully  add) 
merciless  cultivation.  The  natural  fertility  of  the  soil 
was  gradually  reduced  by  enormous  crops  of  fruit  and  its 
physical  condition  lowered  year  by  year,  without  the  res- 
toration of  any  considerable  amount  of  plant-food  or 
vegetable  matter.  After  the  lapse  of  many  years,  from 

179 


180  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

various  troubles  and  diseases,  the  vigor  and 'fruitfulness 
of  the  vineyards  waned,  and  the  industry  began  to  languish. 
Hundreds  of  acres  of  vines  were  pulled  out  and  the  land 
immediately  and  without  improvement  set  to  peach  trees 
which,  for  another  long  term  of  years,  and  under  the  usual 
relentless  culture  without  the  addition  of  humus  in  any 
form,  thrived  and  produced  numerous,  heavy  crops  of 
fruit.  Again,  as  the  remaining  store  of  fertility  became 
further  depleted  by  the  searching  root  systems  of  adult 
peach  trees,  enemies  began  to  appear  and  make  their 
presence  felt.  San  Jose  scale  and  leaf  curl  fell  upon  the 
island  as  a  scourge  and  came  near  writing  the  final  chapter 
in  the  history  of  successful  peach  culture  there.  With  the 
destruction  of  great  areas  of  orchards  by  the  scale  and  the 
injury  of  thousands  upon  thousands  of  trees,  upon  which 
the  scale  was  not  quite  successfully  combated,  it  is  only 
natural  that  great  discouragement  and  depression  should 
overtake  the  orchardists,  so  long  accustomed  to  bountiful 
rewards  for  labor  performed  under  such  favorable  con- 
ditions." 

Has  not  Professor  Green1  truthfully  portrayed  what 
we  have  a  right  to  expect  will  happen  to  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tain fruit-growers  if  our  system  of  orchard  management 
is  not  changed  ?  No  sane  man  should  hope  to  continue  to 
take  large  crops  of  first-class  fruit  from  an  orchard  for  very 
many  years  without  doing  something  to  restore  the  lost 
fertility.  True,  we  do  not  expect  to  have  many  of  the 
Eastern  orchard  insects  and  diseases  to  contend  with,  but 
they  are  possibilities.  We  have,  however,  been  faithful  in 
giving  clean  cultivation,  and  when  one  comes  to  think 
of  it,  do  not  the  expressions  " merciless  cultivation"  and 
"relentless  culture"  aptly  describe  this  system? 

1  Green,  W.  J.,  and  Ballou,  F.  H.,  Ohio  Expt.  Sta.  Bui.  157,  p.  118. 


The  Tillage  of  Orchards  181 

If  we  were  to  follow  our  own  inclination,  we  would  close 
this  chapter  at  this  point  and  refer  all  who  are  interested 
to  the  subject  of  fertilizers  and  shade-crops.  But  an  un- 
derstanding of  the  subject  will  help  us  to  correct  mistakes, 
and  for  this  reason,  at  least,  a  discussion  will  be  desirable. 

Bailey  *  has  summarized  the  benefits  of  tillage  as 
follows :  — 

1 .  Tillage  improves  the  physical  condition  of  the  land  — 
(a)  By   fining    the    soil,    and    thereby   presenting 

greater  feeding  surface  to  the  roots; 

(6)  By  increasing  the  depth  of  the  soil,  and  thereby 

giving  a  greater  foraging  and  roothold  area  to 
the  plant; 

(c)  By  warming  and  drying  the  soil  in  spring; 

(d)  By  reducing  the  extremes  of  temperature  and 

moisture. 

2.  Tillage  may  save  moisture  — 

(e)  By  increasing  the  water-holding  capacity  of  the 

soil; 
(/)  By  checking  evaporation. 

3.  Tillage  may  augment  chemical  activities  — 
(g)  By  aiding  in  setting  free  plant-food; 
(h)  By  promoting  nitrification; 

(i)   By  hastening    the    decomposition   of    organic 
matter; 

(7)  By  extending  these  agencies  (g,  h,  i)  to  greater 

depths  of  the  soil. 

A  composite  of  the  practices  of  a  number  of  the  most 
successful  fruit-growers  results  as  follows:  Use  the 

1  Bailey,  L.  H.,  "The  Principles  of  Fruit-growing,"  p.  139. 


182  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

turning  plow  in  the  spring,  each  year  or  often  enough  to 
prevent  the  ground  from  becoming  hard.  Follow  the  plow 
with  a  harrow  or  disc  if  lumpy,  and  this  with  the  smooth- 
ing harrow.  Some  use  a  float  instead  of  the  harrow.  The 
subsequent  tillage  or  cultivation  consists  in  going  over  the 
ground  often  enough  to  prevent  a  crust  from  forming  and 
to  keep  the  weeds  down.  This  necessitates  tilling  after  each 
irrigation  and  after  rains.  The  Planet  Jr.  cultivator  and 
the  smoothing  harrow  are  used  for  this  purpose.  Tillage 
is  continued  until  the  branches  are  bent  down  by  the  fruit, 
which  will  average  about  the  first  of  August. 

Winter  tillage  is  practiced  when  the  condition  of  the 
ground  will  permit.  Two  tillings  in  the  winter  is  con- 
sidered to  be  about  correct.  The  Planet  Jr.  cultivator  or 
a  disk  harrow  is  used  for  this  purpose. 

Turning  now  to  the  classification  of  the  benefits  of  til- 
lage as  given  on  page  181,  it  would  seem  at  first  thought 
that  the  system  followed  by  our  best  orchardists  meets  all 
requirements.  We  find  first  that  tillage  improves  the 
physical  condition  of  the  land.  By  the  physical  condition 
is  meant  its  tilth  and  general  make  up,  whether  it  is  com- 
pact and  hard,  or  whether  it  is  loose  and  loamy.  But  any 
one  who  has  traveled  among  the  orchards  knows  that  in 
the  majority  of  cases  the  soil  is  far  from  being  loose  and 
loamy.  On  the  contrary,  it  soon  is  compact,  lacks  fiber, 
and  it  becomes  puddled  after  irrigation  or  rains.  We 
have  even  seen  orchard  soils  so  hard  two  inches  below 
the  surface  that  an  opening  could  be  made  into  them  only 
with  the  aid  of  a  pick.  And  yet  thorough  cultivation 
had  been  given  the  land  for  years.  Evidently  something 
is  wrong,  so  we  follow  on  down  the  classification  and  find 


The  Tillage  of  Orchaids  183 

under  (i)  that  tillage  may  hasten  the  decomposition  of 
organic  matter.  Here  we  believe  is  the  cause  of  our  diffi- 
culties. Cultivation,  bare  soils,  and  intense  sunshine  do 
hasten  decomposition  and  in  fact  the  burning  up  of  such 
material.  The  classification  is  correct,  but  we  have 
failed  to  adapt  our  system  of  cultivation  to  the  climatic 
condition.  The  best  advice  has  insisted  that  tillage  and 
green-manuring  (or  cover-cropping)  are  complementary 
practices  of  equal  importance;  in  the  arid  regions,  we  have 
emphasized  only  the  tillage. 

We  are  absolutely  dependent  on  decaying  organic  matter 
to  keep  the  soil  in  proper  physical  condition,  that  is, 
loamy  and  friable.  But  upon  examination  we  find  that 
this  material  is  largely  absent,  having  been  sacrificed  as  a 
burnt  offering  to  the  gods  of  clean  cultivation. 

A  certain  amount  of  cultivation  or  clean  tillage  is  nec- 
essary, but  one  need  not  wear  out  his  soil  in  an  effort  to 
supply  it.  As  will  be  seen  in  the  next  chapter,  we  advo- 
cate growing  a  shade-crop  in  the  orchard  in  hot  weather. 
If  this  system  is  adopted,  the  land  should  be  plowed  at 
least  every  second  season,  depending  on  the  soil.  By 
so  doing  a  sufficient  amount  of  tillage  will  be  given,  and  at 
the  same  time  organic  matter  will  be  supplied. 

In  the  case  of  young  orchards,  unless  the  ground  is  very 
poor,  some  hoed  crop  will  probably  be  advisable.  Such 
crops  shade  the  ground,  and  their  growth  need  not  interfere 
with  the  proper  development  of  the  trees.  Among  the 
crops  used  are  cantaloupes,  potatoes,  squashes,  and  corn. 


CHAPTER  XII 
FERTILIZERS  AND  SHADE-CROPS 

WE  often  hear  it  said  that  western  soils1  are  inex- 
haustible ;  and  indeed  it  is  true  that  they  are  fairly  rich  in 
many  of  the  elements  of  fertility.  But  we  now  know  from 
experience  that  land  cropped  year  after  year  to  wheat 
becomes  unprofitable,  that  even  the  second  crop  of  pota- 
toes is  rarely  satisfactory,  and  that  all  fruit  association  men 
and  local  dealers  know  that  small  apples  and  pie  peaches 
are  becoming  more  and  more  common. 

1  Some  of  our  readers  have  no  doubt  seen  the  papers  on  various  phases 
of  soil  fertility  published  in  recent  years  by  the  Bureau  of  Soils  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  Their  investigations  seem  to 
show  that  there  is  no  such  thing  as  soil  exhaustion,  as  generally  under- 
stood, but  rather  that  there  is  an  inexhaustible  supply  of  all  of  the 
mineral  elements  of  plant-food  in  ordinary  soils.  They  contend  that 
the  decreased  yields  of  the  various  crops  is  due  to  poisonous  sub- 
stances excreted  by  the  roots  of  plants.  Thus,  according  to  this  view, 
any  crop  may  soon  poison  the  land  to  such  an  extent  that  proper  devel- 
opment of  the  plants  is  hindered,  and  decreased  yields  result.  The 
remedy,  according  to  this  theory,  is  naturally  a  proper  rotation  of  crops 
and  methods  of  soil  sanitation.  The  idea  that  the  roots  excrete  poison- 
ous materials  is  an  old  one,  and  new  evidence  lends  support  to  it;  but 
that  this  is  accountable  for  all  of  the  many  cases  of  unsatisfactory 
yields  is  difficult  to  believe.  At  any  rate  the  writers  prefer  for  the  pres- 
ent to  adhere  to  the  well-established  theories,  believing  that  the  avail- 
able supply  of  plant-food  may  be  depleted.  The  presence  of  decaying 
vegetable  matter  in  the  soil  improves  its  physical  condition,  helps  to 
set  plant-food  free,  and,  in  a  measure,  takes  the  place  of  crop  rotation  in 
the  orchard.  This  may  best  be  supplied  and  conserved  under  arid  con- 
ditions by  the  use  of  shade-crops. 

184 


Fertilizers  and  Shade-crops  185 

In  several  western  regions  the  land  was  planted  con- 
tinuously to  wheat  in  the  early  days,  and,  as  any  one  would 
now  expect,  the  soil  became  depleted  and  in  some  instances 
the  farmers  faced  bankruptcy.  This  same  land  is  now 
producing  immense  crops  of  wheat,  oats,  sugar-beets, 
potatoes,  and  alfalfa.  What  has  brought  about  the 
change?  Alfalfa  was  introduced  about  the  year  1860. 
It  was  adapted  to  our  conditions  from  the  first,  and  large 
areas  of  this  land  were  soon  growing  luxuriant  crops  of 
this  unexcelled  forage  plant.  The  feeding  of  animals  was 
then  in  its  infancy,  and  alfalfa  soon  became  a  drug  on  the 
market.  It  was  then  found  that  alfalfa  sod  could  be  suc- 
cessfully broken,  and,  much  to  the  surprise  of  all,  when 
planted  to  wheat,  the  yield  per  acre  was  far  greater  than 
when  the  land  was  first  subdued. 

What  had  alfalfa  done  to  the  soil  ?  It  had  added  some 
nitrogen,  which  it  is  able  to  gather  from  the  soil-air  by 
the  aid  of  the  nitrogen-fixing  bacteria.  It  also  brought 
up  from  the  lower  depths,  ten  or  more  feet  below  the 
surface,  potassium  and  phosphorus.  These  two  impor- 
tant elements  of  plant-food  were  deposited  in  the  surface 
soil  in  the  shattered  leaves  and  stems  as  crop  after  crop 
was  removed,  and  when  the  sod  was  broken,  the  decaying 
roots  and  stubble  added  their  quota.  But  more  impor- 
tant than  all  these,  decaying  vegetable  matter  and  its 
products  had  been  added  to  the  soil.  Without  decaying 
vegetable  matter  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil  is 
almost  ruined  for  agricultural  purposes,  and  the  hosts 
of  bacteria  that  perform  many  essential  activities  are 
prevented  from  developing. 

Our  orchards  have  been  planted,  for  the  most  part,  on 


186 


Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 


desert  land,  and  in  most  cases  the  land  was  cleared  of  the 
native  growth  and  planted  directly  to  trees.  Thus  there 
was  little  or  no  vegetable  matter  in  the  ground;  and  since 
our  growers  have  been  very  insistent  on  clean  cultivation 
and  stable  manure  is  scarce,  little  has  been  added.  Does 
it  not  stand  to  reason  that  continued  cropping  to  apples 
or  to  peaches  will  bring  the  same  disastrous  results  that 
befell  the  wheat-growers  ? 

The  following  information  compiled  by  Roberts1  is 
valuable  in  this  connection.  Table  IV  shows  the  amounts 
of  plant-food  that  are  removed  in  the  grain  and  straw  in 
twenty  years  of  continuous  cropping  to  wheat.  It  is  as- 
sumed that  an  average  of  15  bushels  of  grain  and  35  pounds 
of  straw  are  removed  from  an  acre  each  year : 

TABLE  IV.    AMOUNTS  OF  PLANT-FOOD  REMOVED  FROM  AN  ACRE 
IN  TWENTY  YEARS'  CONTINUOUS  CROPPING  TO  WHEAT 


NITROGEN 

PHOS.  ACID 

POTASH 

VALUE 

lb. 

lb. 

lb. 

Grain    .     .     . 

424.80 

160.20 

109.80 

$79.86 

Straw    .     .     . 

234.78 

50.40 

214.20 

48.37 

In  contrast  with  this,  the  same  author  gives  similar 
figures  of  the  plant-food  that  may  be  expected  to  be  carried 
away  in  20  years  in  fruit  and  leaves  from  an  acre  of  bear- 
ing apple  orchard.  The  figures,  represent  20  years  of  the 
productive  life  of  a  New  York  apple  orchard  between  the 
ages  of  13  and  33  years,  and  does  not  include  the  materials 
stored  in  the  wood  of  the  tree. 

1  Roberts,  I.  P.,  Cornell  Exp.  Sta.  Bui.  103. 


Fertilizers  and  Shads-crops 


187 


TABLE  V.    AMOUNTS  OF  PLANT-FOOD  REMOVED  FROM  AN  ACRE 
OF  APPLE  ORCHARD  IN  TWENTY  YEARS 


NITROGEN 

PHOS.  ACID 

POTASH 

VALUE 

lb. 

lb. 

lb. 

Apples  .     .     . 
Leaves  .     .     . 

498.60 
456.75 

38.25 
126.00 

728.55 
441.00 

$110.26 
97.17 

Total  value  in  wheat,  grain,  and  straw  for  20  years,  $128.23. 
Total  value  in  apple,  fruit,  and  leaves  for  20  years,  $207.45. 

These  figures  show  that  an  apple  crop  takes  more  fer- 
tility from  the  land  than  wheat;  and  most  farmers  know 
from  experience  that  continuous  cropping  to  most  farm- 
crops  leads  to  disaster.  The  day  of  reckoning  does  not 
come  quite  so  soon,  perhaps,  with  mismanaged  orchards, 
but  it  is  none  the  less  certain.  The  fact  that  trees  grow 
to  great  size  and  live  for  many  years  in  forests  does  not 
apply  to  growing  apples  unless,  perchance,  they  are  grown 
for  cider.  The  quicker  the  fruit-grower  realizes  that  each 
crop  of  fruit  makes  large  inroads  on  the  available  supply 
of  plant-food,  the  quicker  will  he  waken  to  the  fact  that 
scrupulously  clean  cultivation  is  not  all  there  is  in  the 
handling  of  orchard  land. 

There  are  thirty-eight  elements  that  may  enter  into  the 
make  up  of  a  plant;  ten  of  this  number  are  considered  to 
be  essential  to  its  proper  growth.  These  essential  ele- 
ments are  as  follows :  carbon,  hydrogen,  oxygen,  nitrogen, 
sulfur,  phosphorus,  potassium,  calcium,  magnesium,  and 
iron.  Normal  development  of  a  plant  is  impossible  if  a 
single  one  of  these  elements  is  absent.  Only  three  of  this 


188  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

number  are  considered,  ordinarily,  in  the  fertilizing  of  soil, 
namely,  nitrogen,  potassium,  and  phosphorus,  because  the 
others  are  normally  present  in  most  soils  or  in  the  air 
in  sufficient  amount. 

Nitrogen  is  essential  to  vigorous  growth,  and  an  over- 
supply  in  the  soil  often  promotes  a  rank  growth  of  twigs 
and  foliage  at  the  expense  of  fruit-production. 

Potassium  or  potash  is  especially  important  in  fruit- 
growing, since  it  aids  in  developing  color  and  is  the  base 
in  combination  with  fruit  acids.  It  also  forms  more  than 
50  per  cent  of  the  ash  of  fruits  and  constitutes  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  ash  of  the  wood  of  fruit  trees. 

Phosphorus  is  probably  not  so  important  in  fruit-grow- 
ing as  in  grain  production,  as  it  enters  largely  into  the  com- 
position of  seeds.  But  it  is  an  essential  constituent  of  tree 
and  fruit,  and  aids  particularly  in  the  proper  ripening  of  the 
latter. 

These  three  substances  are  supplied  in  various  forms  in 
commercial  fertilizers,  and  it  would  seem  to  be  a  simple 
matter  to  provide  any  one  or  all  of  them  as  the  individual 
orchard  seemed  to  demand.  Such  manures  are  used  very 
extensively  by  orchardists  in  the  eastern  states,  but  so 
far  as  wre  know,  commercial  fertilizers  have  not  been  tried 
in  the  orchards  of  the  inter-mountain  states,  and  we  hope 
that  their  use  will  not  become  necessary  for  many  years  to 
come.  In  any  event,  freight  rates  are  so  high  as  to  make 
their  use  almost  prohibitive.  Then,  the  benefit  to  be 
derived  from  their  use  under  our  conditions  is  problem- 
atical, as  the  following  experience  would  indicate. 

Potato-growers  feel  that  they  should  grow  two  crops 
in  succession  after  turning  under  alfalfa  sod.  The  second 


Fertilizers  and  Shade*  crops  186 

crop,  however,  is  rarely  as  good  as  the  first  and  is  very 
often  produced  at  a  loss.  To  one  who  is  familiar  with 
farming  methods  as  practiced  in  the  East,  it  would  seem 
to  be  a  simple  matter  to  bring  up  the  yield  of  the  second 
crop  by  an  application  of  commercial  fertilizers.  Ac- 
cordingly, a  series  of  acre  plots  was  laid  off  in  a  potato 
field  to  which  commercial  fertilizers  were  applied.  High- 
grade  nitrate  of  soda,  sulfate  of  potash,  and  phosphoric 
acid  in  the  form  of  dissolved  bone  meal  were  applied 
separately  and  in  various  combinations.  These  experi- 
ments were  carried  through  four  years,  and  at  the  end  of 
that  time  it  could  not  be  shown  that  the  fertilizers  had 
in  any  case  produced  an  increased  yield  over  the  unfer- 
tilized plots. 

How,  then,  are  we  to  maintain  the  fertility  of  our 
orchard  lands?  We  have  already  seen  what  are  the 
benefits  to  wheat  and  potatoes  of  plowing  under  alfalfa, 
so  why  not  adopt  a  system  of  green-manuring  for  the 
orchard  ?  The  potato-growers  do  not  think  of  growing 
more  than  two  crops  of  potatoes  after  alfalfa  has  been 
turned  under.  If  they  can  afford  to  grow  alfalfa  for  the 
purpose  of  producing  better  potatoes  and  in  the  mean- 
time secure  but  two  crops  in  five  years,  surely  the  orchard- 
ist  can  adopt  similar  methods.  There  will  be  no  rota- 
tion with  the  orchard  crop,  but  an  actual  saving  in  labor 
may  be  made,  since  there  is  little  or  no  cultivation  while 
the  green-manure  is  occupying  the  ground.  The  potato- 
grower  secures  some  returns,  to  be  sure,  from  the  alfalfa 
hay  and  from  the  grain  with  which  it  is  seeded,  but  the 
potato  crop  is  the  money-maker. 

We  have  already  noticed    both    in   this   and   in   the 


190  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

preceding  chapter  what  are  some  of  the  effects  of  plowing 
under  green-crops.  But  the  importance  of  the  subject 
will  warrant  a  repetition.  The  following  summary  has 
been  adapted  in  part  from  Bailey's  writings  on  cover- 
crops  :  — 

1.  Green-manures  improve  the  physical  condition  of  the 
land :  — 

(a)  Shade  the  surface  soil  from  intense  sun  in  summer, 
thereby  protecting  the  trunk  and  limbs  from 
the  reflection  of  the  sun  from  the  soil; 

(6)  Prevent  the  very  rapid  burning  of  organic  matter  in 
the  soil; 

(c)  Conserve  some  of  the  surface  moisture,  and  prevent 

crusts  from  forming; 

(d)  Prevent  soils  from  cementing  and  puddling; 

(e)  Prevent  the  rapid  drainage  of  water  from  loose,  porous 

soils; 
(/)  Prevent  one  form  of  freezing  dry. 

2.  Green-manures   modify   or  influence    chemical    ac- 
tivities :  — 

(g)  They  catch  and  hold  some  of  the  leaching  nitrates; 

(h)  Render  plant-food  material  available; 

(i)  Appropriate  nitrogen,  if  leguminous  crops  are  grown. 

Shade-crops 

Cover-crops  have  become  very  popular  in  the  East 
in  orchard  management.  The  name  is  derived  from  the 
fact  that  the  seed  is  sown  in  the  fall  or  late  summer  and 
sufficient  growth  results  so  that  the  ground  is  covered 
and  protected  during  the  winter.  The  crop  is  intended 


Fertilizers  and  Sfiade-iyrops  191 

primarily  for  a  green-manure,  but  under  eastern  condi- 
tions it  cannot  occupy  the  land  during  the  growing  season. 
The  trees  usually  need  all  of  the  available  moisture  during 
that  period,  and  clean  cultivation  is  practiced  to  conserve 
it.  As  soon  as  the  trees  have  made  their  growth  for  the 
season,  the  cover-crop  is  planted,  and  its  growth  uses 
the  surplus  moisture,  and  thus  the  trees  are  aided  in  matur- 
ing before  cold  weather  comes  on.  Our  conditions  are 
quite  different,  from  the  fact  that  the  water  is  largely 
under  man's  control.  We  think  that  our  conditions 
demand  a  cover  for  the  soil  far  more  in  the  summer  than 
in  the  winter.  And,  moreover,  nearly  as  much  protection 
is  afforded  in  the  winter  if  the  crop  is  plowed  under  late 
in  fall,  as  if  the  plants  are  allowed  to  stand.  We  therefore 
propose  the  name  "  shade-crops,"  for  a  system  which  we 
hope  may  come  into  general  use  in  the  semiarid  region. 

Many  orchardists  have  seen  young  trees  killed  by  run- 
ning water  close  to  them  during  a  hot  day,  the  reflection 
of  the  sun  from  the  water  causing  sun-scald.  It  is  thought 
that  reflection  from  a  hot,  baked  soil  may  cause  similar 
injuries. 

As  has  been  noted,  arid  soils  are  very  deficient  in  de- 
caying vegetable  matter,  and  this  material  is  very  rapidly 
dissipated  when  it  is  supplied.  A  summer  cover  will 
perform  one  of  its  most  important  functions  in  prevent- 
ing at  least  a  part  of  this  loss. 

Examine  a  moderately  heavy  soil  in  an  orchard  where 
a  manurial  crop  is  growing.  The  surface  soil  under  the 
plants  will  be  found  to  be  cool,  moist,  and  friable,  while 
adjacent,  unprotected  land  will  be  found  to  be  hot,  dry, 
and  compact.  This  difference  is  due  not  alone  to  the 


192  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

shade  afforded  by  the  plants,  but  to  the  transpiration  of 
immense  quantities  of  water  as  well.  It  has  been  found, 
for  example,  that  a  grass  plant  will  give  off  its  own  weight 
of  water  every  twenty-four  hours  in  hot,  dry  summer 
weather.  To  be  sure,  it  requires  more  water  to  irrigate  an 
orchard  when  any  crop  other  than  the  trees  is  grown, 
but  when  sufficient  water  can  be  had,  this  feature  need 
not  be  considered. 

It  is  well  known  that  our  heavier  soils,  particularly 
if  they  are  strongly  alkaline,  become  so  compact  that  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  till  them  after  the  first  irrigation 
in  the  spring.  It  is  also  true  that  continued  clean  tillage, 
particularly  if  plowing  is  omitted,  will  make  almost  any 
of  our  soils  compact.  It  is  this  condition  that  prevents 
the  proper  development  of  absorbing  roots  and  the  setting 
free  of  the  native  fertility  of  the  soil.  A  few  of  our  fruit- 
growers have  shown  that  green-manures  in  combination 
with  the  necessary  plowing  will  work  wonders  with  such 
soils  as  well  as  with  the  appearance  of  the  trees  growing 
on  them. 

Earthworms  do  damage  in  some  orchards  for  the 
reason  that  they  puddle  the  soil,  and  much  of  the  irriga- 
tion water  seems  to  disappear  through  the  channels 
that  they  make  deep  in  the  ground.  A  supply  of  de- 
caying organic  matter  should  do  much  to  overcome  these 
defects. 

Soils  are  occasionally  found  which  are  so  porous  that 
water  leaches  through  them  much  as  if  through  a  sieve. 
If  fiber  can  be  incorporated  in  such  land  by  plowing 
under  green-crops,  this  tendency  to  leach  will  be  overcome, 
to  a  certain  extent  at  least. 


Fertilizers  and  Shade-crops  193 

Many  young  trees  are  lost  each  year  in  the  colder 
districts  as  a  result  of  "freezing  dry."  This  term  is  used 
to  denote  a  condition  that  may  be  induced  in  different 
ways.  The  usual  cause  is  merely  a  lack  of  water  in  the 
soil  in  the  winter.  Trees  give  off  water  in  cold  weather 
from  twigs  and  limbs,  and  if  the  supply  is  not  replenished, 
death  results.  A  similar  effect  is  produced  when  a  damp 
soil  is  frozen  to  such  a  depth  that  root  action  is  suspended. 
The  tops  of  such  trees  usually  die  after  a  feeble  attempt 
at  putting  forth  leaves,  while  the  roots  are  usually  in 
perfect  condition. 

The  lack  of  water  may  be  avoided  by  winter  or  late 
fall  irrigation.  The  deep  freezing  presents  more  of  a 
problem,  but  we  think  that  it  may  be  prevented  to  a 
considerable  extent  by  the  use  of  shade-crops.  True, 
the  system  we  propose  contemplates  plowing  in  the  fall, 
but  eastern  experience  proves  that  as  much  protection 
from  frost  is. secured  when  a  crop  is  plowed  into  the  land 
in  the  fall  as  when  it  is  left  standing  throughout  the  winter. 

The  winter  of  1903  to  1904  was  very  severe  in  the  East, 
and  in  some  sections  hundreds  of  orchard  trees,  partic- 
ularly peach  trees,  were  destroyed.  Green1  made  a 
survey  of  the  injured  orchards  the  following  summer, 
and  found  that  injury  occurred  only  on  improverished 
and  bare  soils.  A  cover-crop,  sod,  good  growth  of  weeds, 
or  stable  manure  afforded  almost  complete  protection 
from  the  cold.  And,  moreover,  and  what  is  more  impor- 
tant for  our  purpose,  he  found  that  when  such  materials 
had  been  recently  plowed  under,  the  protection  was  just 
as  effective. 

1  Green,  W.  J,,  Qhjo  Agri.  Exp.  Sta.  BuJ.  157,  1904. 
Q 


194  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 


Humus :  What  it  is  and  what  it  Does 

Popular  writers  on  horticultural  topics  have  woefully 
confused  humus  with  decaying  organic  matter,  and  have 
implied  that  all  organic  material  is  humus  as  soon  as  it  is 
mixed  with  the  earth  and  decay  has  set  in.  The  fact 
is,  humus  is  the  final  product  of  organic  decay,  and  as 
such  has  entirely  different  effects  on  soils  than  have 
organic  materials  that  are  undergoing  the  processes  of 
decomposition. 

When  green-manure  is  plowed  into  the  soil,  various 
low  forms  of  plant  life,  including  fungi,  yeasts,  and  bacteria, 
attack  it,  thus  inducing  decay.  Fraenkel 1  "  found  in 
the  cultivated  soil  of  Liebefeld  5,750,000,  in  meadow 
land  9,400,000,  in  a  manure  pile  44,500,000,  bacteria  per 
cubic  centimeter.  These  figures  seem  high  for  so  small 
a  quantity  of  material,  but  taking  the  average  size  of 
a  bacterium,  a  cubic  centimeter  might  readily  contain 
six  hundred  millions." 

Other  forms  of  bacteria  begin  to  multiply  as  soon  as 
fermentation  sets  in.  Different  organisms  have  different 
and  important  functions  in  promoting  chemical  activities 
in  the  soil;  plant-food  elements  are  set  free,  changed 
and  combined  into  substances  that  plants  can  use.  No 
less  than  five  different  acids  are  generated  by  the  processes 
of  decay,  carbonic  acid  being  among  the  most  important. 

Sackett 2  found  that  clover  taken  in  full  bloom  in  June, 
when  ground  and  mixed  with  soil  at  the  rate  of  10  tons 
per  acre,  gave  off  at  the  end  of  three  days  carbon 

1  Hilgard,  "Soils,"  p.  143. 

8  Sackett,  W.  G.,  unpublished  notes. 


Fertilizers  and  Shade-crops  195 

dioxid1  corresponding  to  3812  pounds  per  acre  foot. 
This  action  continued  through  a  period  of  three  weeks, 
gradually  diminishing,  however,  until  at  the  end  of  that 
period  very  little  of  the  gas  was  evolved.  One  hundred 
tons  per  acre  of  red  clover  treated  in  the  same  way  gave 
off  after  twelve  days  five  tons  of  carbon  dioxid  per  acre 
foot.  This  investigator  also  tested  the  solvent  action 
of  pure  carbon  dioxid  on  various  materials.  Pure  ground 
bone  meal  was  placed  in  a  flask,  and  carbon  dioxid  was 
allowed  to  pass  through  it.  At  the  end  of  one  hour 
2.11  per  cent  of  the  insoluble  phosphoric  acid  had  been 
made  soluble.  At  the  end  of  two  hours  5.21  per  cent 
was  made  soluble.  Ground  phosphate  rock  treated  in 
the  same  way  gave  the  following  results:  after  one  hour 
.16  per  cent  of  the  insoluble  phosphoric  acid  had  been 
made  soluble;  in  two  hours  .28  per  cent.  Magnesium 
phosphate  similarly  treated  yielded  16.33  per  cent  in 
one  hour  and  22.35  per  cent  in  two  hours  of  soluble 
phosphoric  acid. 

Carbonic  acid  is,  then,  an  important  agent  in  dissolving 
rock  particles,  and  with  its  aid  latent  fertility  is  brought 
into  a  condition  to  be  used  by  plants. 

Organic  matter  is  often  almost  entirely  consumed 
under  arid  conditions  very  quickly  after  it  is  incorporated 
with  the  soil.  The  heat  of  the  sun  in  conjunction  with 
insufficient  moisture  produces  conditions  which  oxidize  the 
material,  or,  in  other  words,  burn  it  much  as  though 
it  had  been  consumed  by  fire;  hence  the  " burning  out 
of  soil,"  an  expression  common  among  farmers.  This 

1  Carbon  dioxid  and  carbonic  acid  gas  are  synonymous;  when  com- 
bined with  water,  carbonic  acid  is  formed. 


196  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

change  in  organic  matter  is  no  doubt  begun  by  soil  or- 
ganisms, while  the  later  stages  are  probably  of  a  chemical 
nature. 

The  decay  that  results  in  humus  takes  place  at  moderate 
temperatures.  Organisms  do  not  develop  in  a  low  tem- 
perature, and  at  a  high  temperature  oxidation  or  burning 
results.  An  apparent  contradiction  to  this  statement 
is  found  in  the  difficulty  with  which  unrotted  stable 
manure  decays  when  plowed  into  land,  if  moisture  is 
not  abundant.  The  lack  of  moisture  probably  prevents 
the  development  of  bacteria  in  sufficient  numbers  to  begin 
decay,  consequently  the  chemical  changes  that  result  in 
burning  do  not  occur.  The  presence  of  such  material  is 
a  detriment  to  growing  plants  as  it  keeps  the  soil  so  open 
that  an  undue  amount  of  moisture  is  permitted  to  escape. 
This  effect  is  so  noticeable  that  many  of  the  so-called 
dry  farmers  make  no  use  of  stable  manure.  This  wanton 
waste  might  easily  be  prevented  by  composting,  as  there 
is  sufficient  moisture  in  the  rain  and  snow  thoroughly  to 
rot  manure  treated  in  this  way. 

The  compound  resulting  after  organic  decay  is  com- 
pleted is  humus.  Such  decay  results  in  a  dark-colored 
material,  without  organic  structure,  soluble  in  alkalies 
after  the  lime  has  been 'removed.  Humus  gives  a  dark 
"rich"  color  to  otherwise  light-colored  soils.  It  is  com- 
plex in  composition.  It  is  especially  important  as  being 
a  reservoir  of  nitrogen.  Much  of  the  nitrogen  that  is 
brought  to  the  soil  by  leguminous  plants,  as  well  as  that 
which  is  stored  in  the  plant, in  the  processes  of  growth, 
is  not  available  to  growing  plants  until  the  humus  stage  is 
reached. 


Fertilizers  and  Shade-crops  197 

Humus  usually  exists  only  in  small  quantities  in  arid 
soils,  and  often  is  entirely  absent  when  clean  cultivation 
without  manuring  has  been  practiced.  It  may  also  be 
present  in  small  quantities  along  with  partially  decayed 
organic  matter.  Much  of  this  valuable  material  is  lost 
by  constant  clean  cultivation  and  the  consequent  burning 
of  the  organic  materials,  before  it  reaches  the  stage  in 
which  humifaction  may  take  place.  A  large  part  of  the 
loss  of  nitrogen  could  be  prevented,  and  many  of  the 
benefits  conserved,  by  shading  the  soil. 

While  it  is  no  doubt  true  that  humus  aids  in  improving 
the  physical  condition  of  the  soil,  it  is  probable  that  much 
of  the  beneficial  effect,  such  as  giving  fiber  and  improving 
tilth,  as  well  as  increasing  the  water-holding  capacity, 
is  due  in  a  much  larger  degree  to  the  partially  decayed 
organic  matter. 

The  Leguminous  Green-crops 

Several  leguminous  crops  are  known  to  be  of  great  im- 
portance in  orchard  management,  but  their  value  needs 
to  be  still  further  emphasized.  By  leguminous  plants  is 
meant  the  members  of  the  family  that  includes  the  beans, 
peas,  cowpeas,  clovers,  alfalfa,  and  vetches.  These  are  the 
only  plants  of  agricultural  importance,  so  far  as  now 
known,  that  have  the  power  of  taking  nitrogen  from  the 
air  and  converting  it  into  combinations  that  other  plants 
can  use.  Thus  they  actually  add  plant-food  to  the  soil; 
and  nitrogen  is  the  most  expensive  element  to  supply  in 
commercial  form  as  well  as  the  most  difficult  to  keep, 
since  it  is  readily  dissipated  in  gaseous  form.  A  certain 
species  of  bacterium  lives  on  the  roots  of  vigorous  legumes 


198  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

where  the  swollen  regions  or  tubercles  are  formed.  This 
low  form  of  plant  life  is  able  to  take  the  free  nitrogen  from 
the  soil-air  and  change  it  into  forms  that  plants  can  use. 
Consequently,  legumes  can  be  grown  on  land  from  which 
nitrogen  has  been  exhausted. 

It  is  also  found  that  leguminous  plants  do  not  thrive  in 
soil  where  the  accompanying  bacteria  are  absent  if  the 
nitrogen  content  of  the  soil  is  low.  This  led  to  the  mak- 
ing of  pure  cultures  of  the  bacteria  which  are  now  sup- 
plied in  commercial  form.  These  cultures,  after  being 
diluted  and  after  sufficient  multiplication  of  bacteria  has 
taken  place,  are  sprinkled % over  the  land;  or  better  still, 
seeds  are  soaked  in  the  culture  material  just  before  plant- 
ing. Such  cultures  have  not  been  as  successful  as  was 
anticipated,  and  in  the  meantime  a  mass  of  overdrawn 
articles  on  the  subject  has  been  printed  in  magazines  and 
papers.  The  result  is  that  many  farmers  have  been  led 
to  think  that  by  simply  applying  the  cultures  to  their 
land  wonderful  benefit  will  result  to  any  and  all  crops. 
The  truth  is,  these  cultures  have  no  direct  effect  on  any 
plants  other  than  the  legumes.  And,  moreover,  should 
one  wish  to  secure  such  material,  he  must  designate  the 
particular  crop  he  intends  to  grow.  Cultures  from  clover 
bacteria  would  not  be  expected  to  have  any  effect  on  beans 
or  alfalfa.  It  would  be  idle  to  apply  these  cultures  to  land 
that  is  already  producing  good  crops  of  any  of  these  plants; 
and,  moreover,  the  whole  subject  is  yet  in  an  experimental 


How  to  use  Shade-crops 

What  crops  shall  be  grown  for  shade-crops  and  how  they 
shall  be  handled,  is  a  difficult  question  to  answer,  as  the 


Fertilizers  and  Shade-crops  199 

practice  is  new.  The  system  of  cover-crops  as  advocated 
in  the  East  will  not  apply  to  the  arid  regions,  for  various 
reasons.  We  cannot  plant  in  the  fall  and  expect  to  get 
much  growth  to  plow  under  in  the  spring  because  of  the 
short  seasons.  Then  it  might  not  be  advisable  to  irrigate 
at  the  particular  time  the  seed  should  be  sown,  as  would 
probably  need  to  be  done  to  insure  germination.  We 
have  also  found  that  fall-plowing  is  better  suited  to  our 
conditions  than  spring-plowing,  particularly  if  a  crop  or 
manure  is  to  be  turned  under.  If  a  mass  of  vegetable 
matter  is  plowed  under  in  the  spring,  the  ground  is  likely 
to  remain  so  porous  that  difficulty  is  experienced  in  irri- 
gating. The  ground  at  the  upper  end  of  the  row  soon  be- 
comes saturated,  but  still  a  large  head  of  water  must  be 
used  to  force  it  through  to  the  lower  end.  Naturally 
the  trees  at  the  upper  end  are  injured.  Finally,  we  think 
that  both  land  and  trees  will  be  benefited  by  keeping  the 
surface  of  the  soil  shaded  in  the  heat  of  the  summer. 

In  the  light  of  our  present  knowledge  it  will  probably 
be  the  best  plan  to  prepare  the  land  fairly  early  in  the 
spring  and  sow  the  seed  at  that  time.  Or,  if  experience 
shows  that  we  need  a  certain  amount  of  spring  tillage  in 
order  to  aerate  the  soil  and  to  promote  soil  activities,  the 
planting  may  be  delayed  until  June. 

Whether,  in  the  case  of  perennial  shade-crops,  it  will 
be  best  to  let  them  occupy  the  land  for  two  seasons,  plow- 
ing them  under  the  second  fall  or  not,  must  be  deter- 
mined by  experience  and  individual  conditions.  It  now 
seems  best  to  plow  the  land  at  least  every  second  season. 
All  of  the  land  may  be  occupied  by  the  crop  in  old  orchards, 
but  with  younger  trees  space  must  be  left  for  irrigation  as 


200  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

well  as  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  the  crop  appropriating 
food  and  moisture  to  the  detriment  of  the  trees.  There 
would  also  be  more  danger  of  injury  from  small  vermin  and 
grasshoppers;  the  latter  pest  would  probably  have  to  be 
reckoned  with  in  the  young  orchard  in  any  event. 

One  must  take  pains  to  see  that  the  irrigating  furrows 
are  kept  open,  not  allowing  them  to  become  choked  with 
vegetation.  Provision  must  be  made  that  water  may  be 
as  judiciously  distributed  as  though  the  land  were  bare. 
The  trees  should  always  receive  first  consideration;  do 
not  allow  the  prospects  of  a  few  jags  of  hay  to  warp  judg- 
ment when  it  comes  to  a  question  of  the  health  of  the  trees. 

Whether  or  not  it  will  be  advisable  to  remove  any  of  the 
crop  for  hay  must  be  determined  for  each  orchard.  When 
the  land  has  been  badly  impoverished,  or  is  in  poor  physi- 
cal condition,  all  of  the  growth  should  be  returned  to  the 
land. 

If  it  is  found  that  the  continued  use  of  legumes  is  fur- 
nishing too  much  nitrogen,  as  will  be  indicated  by  a  rank 
growth,  then  a  change  should  be  made;  rye  or  buckwheat 
may  be  used  instead.  The  kind  of  plant  that  will  be  best 
adapted  for  use  as  a  shade-crop  is  yet  to  be  determined, 
and  it  is  likely  that  different  soils  and  different  localities 
will  demand  different  things. 

Red  clover  is  at  present  most  in  favor  in  the  arid  regions 
among  the  few  who  have  tried  any  crop  at  all.  A  number 
of  orchards  have  recently  been  planted  to  clover,  and  the 
results  are  very  satisfactory.  It  has  made  an  excellent 
growth,  even  close  to  the  trunks  of  the  largest  trees 
(Fig.  56). 

Winter  vetch  has  been  used  to  some  extent,  and  it 


202  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

makes  a  good  growth  in  any  of  the  orchard  districts  of  this 
region.  A  few  orchardists  are  experimenting  with  Can- 
ada field  peas.  They  have  the  advantage  that  they  make 
good  feed  if  one  wishes  to  combine  hog-feeding  with  or- 
charding. The  pods  will  not  fill  nearly  so  well,  however, 
as  they  do  in  the  higher  altitudes 'where  the  climate  is  much 
cooler.  Pea  seed  should,  therefore,  be  planted  as  early 
in  the  season  as  possible.  Cowpeas  have  been  tried  to  a 
limited  extent,  but  the  season  in  many  parts  of  the  arid 
region  seems  to  be  rather  short  for  them,  and  the  young 
plants  are  easily  injured  by  overwatering.  In  one  or- 
chard where  we  were  experimenting  with  this  crop  the 
plants  made  almost  no  growth,  possibly  because  the  proper 
bacteria  were  not  present. 

Alfalfa  has  been  tried  by  some  persons,  but  at  the  mere 
mention  of  the  word  most  orchardists  will  raise  strong 
objection.  If  it  were  not  so  difficult  to  plow,  it  would 
certainly  be  an  ideal  crop  for  the  purpose.  We  do  not 
wish  to  give  the  impression  of  advocating  the  use  of  al- 
falfa, but  it  is  not  impossible  that  a  method  of  handling 
may  be  devised  that  will  make  its  use  feasible,  except  in 
stony  land.  Why  not  plant  it  in  rows  ?  —  then  tillage  could 
be  given  throughout  the  season  if  desired.  Then  if  the 
tops  are  mown  off  before  the  seed  has  set,  there  ought  not 
to  be  much  trouble  with  its  spreading.  If  the  turning  plow 
is  used  when  the  plants  are  not  over  two  years  old,  it  is  not 
such  a  difficult  matter  to  cut  the  roots,  and  the  ground  will 
usually  need  to  be  plowed  that  often  at  least.  But  if  one 
wishes  to  continue  to  grow  alfalfa  in  the  orchard,  it  would 
be  an  advantage  not  to  kill  it  out,  but  to  have  it  continue  to 
come  up  year  after  year. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
IRRIGATION  IN  ORCHARDS 

As  with  many  of  the  other  orchard  operations,  no 
definite  rules  can  be  laid  down  for  the  proper  application 
of  irrigation  water.  At  best  we  can  give  only  a  few  of  the 
more  important  points  in  the  practical  application  of 
water,  and  with  these  suggestions  in  mind  the  grower  must 
work  out  his  own  system  of  irrigation. 

The  methods  of  applying  water  and  the  quantity  neces- 
sary are  largely  determined  by  soil  conditions,  subsequent 
cultivation,  the  kind  of  fruit,  and  the  age  of  the  orchard. 
The  orchardist  must  first  thoroughly  understand  the 
physiological  principles  discussed  in  the  chapter  on  "The 
Orchard  Plant"  if  he  expects  to  be  an  intelligent  irrigator. 
He  should  know  in  what  ways  water  serves  the  plant,  what 
constitutes  ideal  soil  conditions  for  the  plant,  and  how  to 
judge  the  needs  of  the  plant  by  its  behavior. 

There  are  times  when  the  orchard  should  not  be  irrigated. 
It  is  a  common  opinion  among  growers  that  fruit  trees 
should  not  be  irrigated  when  in  bloom,  and  while  we  have 
no  proof  that  judicious  irrigation  during  the  blooming 
period  really  interferes  with  the  setting  of  the  fruit  or  the 
normal  growth  of  the  tree,  it  is  as  well  to  avoid  irrigating 
at  this  time.  The  orchard  that  goes  into  winter  in  the 
proper  condition  does  not  need  so  early  an  irrigation. 

Excessive  irrigation  in  midsummer  and  later  may  retard 

203 


204  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

or  even  prevent  the  development  of  fruit-buds  for  the  en- 
suing year.  The  formation  of  fruit-buds  evidently  goes 
forward  more  rapidly  in  periods  of  slow  growth.  In  other 
words,  rapid  growth  apparently  depletes  the  supply  of 
elaborated  plant-food  to  such  an  extent  that  it  interferes 
with  the  development  of  fruit-buds,  just  as  a  heavy  crop 
of  fruit  may  prevent  fruit-bud  formation.  The  bearing 
fruit  tree  should  make  very  little  growth  after  the  middle 
of  July,  and  if  the  orchardist  wishes  to  promote  f ruitfulness, 
he  should  not  over-irrigate.  Of  course  the  present  crop 
of  fruit  cannot  be  sacrificed  in  order  to  insure  a  crop  of 
fruit-buds  for  the  following  year,  but  rampant  growth  is 
not  essential  to  the  proper  development  of  the  fruit.  In 
withholding  water  with  the  idea  of  promoting  fruitful- 
ness,  one  must  avoid  letting  the  ground  dry  to  the  extent 
that  it  will  hasten  the  ripening  of  the  fruit.  Fruit  checked 
in  its  growth  by  dearth  of  water  seldom  responds  to  later 
irrigation. 

Excessive  late  irrigation  may  also  retard  coloring. 
Color  naturally  comes  with  maturity,  and  the  injudicious 
use  of  water  may  prolong  the  growing  season  until  the  fruit 
has  no  time  in  which  to  color.  Every  effort  should  be 
made  to  get  the  fruit  up  to  size  early  in  the  growing  season, 
and  then  promote  coloring  by  withholding  water. 

Growth  forced  by  late  irrigation  is  immature  and  is  sub- 
ject to  winterkilling.  The  growth  of  young  orchards, 
especially,  must  be  checked  by'  withholding  water.  The 
date  of  the  last  irrigation  will  vary  with  different  soils,  but 
it  is  safe  to  say  that  few  young  peach  orchards  should  be 
watered  after  the  first  of  August,  and  young  apple  or 
pear  trees  seldom  later  than  the  middle  of  August.  On 


Irrigation  in  Orchard^  205 

some  heavy  soils  summer  irrigation  must  be  discontinued 
much  earlier.  All  new  wood  should  be  well  matured  be- 
fore frost,  and  the  grower  need  not  be  alarmed  if  the  ground 
becomes  so  dry  that  some  of  the  foliage  turns  yellow  and 
begins  to  drop  before  this  time,  for  the  trees  will  not  suffer. 

How  Water  is  held  in  the  Soil 

Water  may  be  found  in  the  soil  in  three  forms:  hydro- 
scopic,  capillary,  or  free.  The  first  two  forms  of  water  are 
held  as  a  film  about  the  soil  particles,  and  are  sometimes 
referred  to  as  "film  moisture/'  The  hydroscopic  water  is 
the  part  of  the  film  nearest  the  soil  particle,  and  it  probably 
serves  the  plant  very  little.  It  is  even  present  in  road  dust, 
and  can  be  driven  off  only  when  the  temperature  is  raised 
to  the  boiling  point. 

The  outer  part  of  the  film  on  the  soil  grain  represents  the 
capillary  water,  and  this  is  the  direct  water-supply  for  the 
plant.  It  does  not  flow  under  the  influence  of  gravity,  but 
passes  from  particle  to  particle,  and  thus  tends  to  keep  the 
soil  uniformly  moist.  Soil  is  in  ideal  condition  for  plant 
growth  when  it  is  well  supplied  with  capillary  water. 
Such  a  soil  is  moist  enough  to  stick  together  when  pressed 
in  the  hand,  and  yet  will  crumble  when  broken  apart. 

Free  water  is  that  which  fills  the  spaces  between  the  soil 
particles.  It  flows  under  the  influence  of  gravity,  and  is 
that  part  of  the  soil  water  carried  off  by  drains.  When  it 
occupies  the  part  of  the  soil  where  roots  normally  grow, 
it  is  actually  detrimental  to  the  growth  of  most  plants. 
When  well  below  the  surface,  it  serves  as  a  reservoir  from 
which  water  may  be  drawn  by  capillary  action.  Soils 
that  contain  free  water  stick  together  when  pressed  in  the 


206  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

hand,  but  will  not  crumble  apart  again  as  do  the  soils 
with  on'y  film  moisture. 

Orchardists  have  relied  far  too  much  on  the  appearance 
of  the  surface  soil  as  a  guide  in  irrigation,  and  as  a  result 
an  excess  of  water  has  been  applied.  So  long  as  the  free 
water  sought  a  level  far  below  the  surface,  no  disastrous 
results  followed,  but  now  with  the  water-table  raised  by 
excessive  irrigation,  over-watering  is  a  more  serious  mat- 
ter. Many  of  the  seeped  areas  in  our  best  fruit  sections 
are  the  result  of  this  persistent  over-irrigation. 

The  orchard  should  not  be  irrigated  until  a  careful  ex- 
amination of  the  soil — not  only  at  the  surface  but  to  a  depth 
of  three  or  four  feet  —  shows  that  there  is  need  of  water. 
One  of  the  most  convenient  means  of  making  this  examina- 
tion is  to  dig  a  few  holes  in  different  parts  of  the  orchard 
with  a  post-hole  auger  or  a  shovel.  If  the  water-table  is 
too  near  the  surface,  the  orchardist  must  cultivate  more 
and  irrigate  less,  or  give  frequent  light  irrigations.  Or- 
chards will  apparently  thrive  on  land  in  which  the  free 
water  comes  within  five  feet  of  the  surface.  Fruit  trees 
really  grow  well  on  land  when  the  water-table  is  nearer 
the  surface,  if  the  water  was  there  when  the  trees  were 
planted;  roots  will  not  penetrate  a  saturated  soil.  But 
if  the  water-table  rises  after  the  trees  have  rooted  deeply, 
it  is  a  different  matter,  as  the  lower  roots  which  come  in 
contact  with  the  water  will  be  smothered,  and  the  death  of 
the  tree  will  result  in  a  short  time. 

Nature  of  the  Soil  modifies  the  Practice 

The  nature  of  the  soil  may  determine  both  the  way  in 
which  the  water  is  applied  and  the  amount  that  is  required. 


Irrigation  in  Orchards  207 

The  system  of  irrigation  well  adapted  to  a  sandy  soil  may 
be  a  failure  with  a  heavy  soil,  and  the  amount  of  water 
necessary  for  the  orchard  on  well  drained  mesa  land  might 
prove  injurious  to  the  orchard  on  poorly  drained  bottom 
ground. 

Heavy  soils  are  difficult  to  irrigate  and  to  keep  in  good 
physical  condition.  The  general  tendency  is  for  the  water 
to  run  the  soil  particles  together,  thus  causing  the  soil  to 
bake.  The  heavier  soils,  composed  largely  of  decomposed 
shale,  sometimes  become  almost  impervious  to  water. 
This  difficulty  may  be  overcome,  to  a  certain  extent,  by 
using  deep  furrows  and  placing  them  far  apart.  In  this 
way  one  avoids  wetting  the  surface  soil,  and  it  is  possible 
to  till  before  the  bottoms  of  the  furrows  bake.  The 
ditches  may  be  placed  about  eight  feet  apart  and  should 
be  thrown  out  with  a  heavy  stirring  plow.  The  head  of 
water  should  be  small  and,  in  some  cases,  must  be  run  for 
a  considerable  length  of  time.  It  is  doubtful,  however, 
whether  it  ever  pays  to  run  water  over  seventy-two  hours 
in  the  same  furrows.  We  have  seen  water  run  thirty  days, 
but  after  the  first  three  days  the  bottoms  and  sides  of  the 
furrows  were  so  well  coated  with  sediment  that  very  little 
of  the  water  escaped  from  them  With  the  heavy  soils 
the  water  may  be  run  almost  any  distance.  If  the  rows 
are  extra  long,  they  should  be  started  with  a  large  head  of 
water,  and  when  it  has  reached  the  other  end  of  the  orchard, 
the  head  should  be  cut  down  just  enough  to  carry  it 
through.  The  surface  of  the  heavy  soils  must  not  be  wet, 
unless  shaded  with  some  crop,  and  this  is  the  purpose  of  the 
deep  ditch  and  the  small  head  of  water.  Heavy  soils  that 
have  been  plowed  must  be  well  settled  before  an  attempt 


Irrigation  in  Orchards' 


209 


is  made  to  water  them.     Fall-plowed  land  generally  settles 
well  during  the  winter,  but  land  plowed  later  should  be 


I1  Hi. 


FIG.  58.  —  Sandy  Soil  well  Furrowed.    Grand  Junction,  Colorado. 

well  worked  down  with  the  disc  and  harrow.  One  should 
avoid  letting  these  heavy  soils  get  dry,  as  they  take  water 
very  slowly  when  once  dry  and  filled  with  air.  A  good, 


210  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

heavy,  fall  irrigation  is  one  of  the  best  ways  of  wetting  such 
land.  Figure  57  shows  an  apple  orchard  on  heavy  soil 
well  furrowed  for  irrigation. 

Sandy  soils  take  water  freely,  and  the  furrows  should 
be  closer  together  and  the  rows  not  so  long  as  in  the 
heavier  soils.  In  the  heavy  soils  the  water  moves  more 
freely  laterally,  and  in  lighter  soils  the  movement  is  down- 
ward. The  longer  the  rows,  the  larger  should  be  the  head 
of  water.  The  upper  end  of  the  orchard  is  sometimes 
over-watered  by  trying  to  run  a  small  head  of  water 
through  long  rows  in  sandy  soils.  It  is  better  to  water 
a  few  rows  well  than  to  try  to  spread  the  water  over  the 
whole  orchard  the  same  day.  The  length  of  time  the  water 
is  allowed  to  run  will  depend  entirely  on  the  soil.  The 
orchardist  must  learn  to  understand  his  soil  and  know 
how  long  it  will  take  to  wet  it.  Provided  the  free  water 
does  not  come  too  near  the  surface,  heavy  waterings  at 
greater  intervals  are  always  to  be  preferred  to  light  and 
frequent  irrigations.  Figure  58  shows  a  pear  orchard 
on  sandy  soil  well  furrowed  out  for  watering.  Figure  25 
shows  a  common  mistake  of  furrowing  near  the  trees  only. 
With  the  sandy  soil  it  is  not  so  important  that  the  water 
be  kept  off  the  surface,  but  flooding  should  be  avoided 
if  possible,  especially  if  the  ground  is  bare. 

Frequency  of  Irrigation 

Soil  conditions  and  the  treatment  the  orchard  receives 
between  times  will  determine  how  often  it  must  be  irri- 
gated. Sandy  soils,  as  a  rule,  require  more  frequent 
irrigations,  especially  where  they  have  good  drainage. 
Orchards  that  are  sparingly  tilled  require  more  frequent 


Irrigation  in  Orchards  i  211 

irrigation.  As  a  rule,  from  two  to  four  summer  irriga- 
tions and  one  late  fall  irrigation  will  be  sufficient  for  the 
old  orchard.  Apple  trees  may  be  watered  more  freely 
than  peacH  trees,  and  pear  trees  will  stand  more  water 
than  apple  trees. 

The  orchard  that  is  receiving  clean  tillage  should  be 
tilled  after  each  irrigation.  Unless  the  ditches  are  culti- 
vated in,  the  bottoms  and  sides  crack  and  allow  the 
ground  to  dry  out  quickly. 

Young  orchards  really  do  not  require  a  great  deal  of 
water,  especially  if  they  are  set  on  land  that  has  been 
previously  irrigated.  The  second  season  is  the  critical 
time  in  the  growth  of  the  young  orchard,  and  unless 
sparingly  irrigated  and  properly  matured,  it  may  be 
seriously  injured  in  severe  winters. 

Orchards  that  have  been  dried  out  in  late  summer 
to  mature  the  fruit  or  the  new  wood  must  be  irrigated 
in  the  fall.  This  is  especially  important  in  localities 
where  there  is  a  light  winter  snowfall.  This  irrigation 
may  be  given  at  any  time  after  frost  has  touched  the 
foliage. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

OTHER  PHASES  OF  ORCHARD  MANAGEMENT 

FRUIT-GROWING  is  not  always  a  separate  business. 
It  is  often  only  one  part  or  phase  of  one's  farming,  and 
as  such  is  most  likely  to  be  associated  with  various  forms 
of  live-stock  raising.  This  live-stock  may  also  be  essential 
to  the  orcharding  itself,  to  supply  the  necessary  manure. 
We  may  therefore  discuss  some  phases  of  stock-raising 
in  connection  with  fruit-growing  before  we  pass  to  the 
question  of  varieties  and  the  discussions  of  marketing. 

The  person  who  engages  in  fruit-growing  without  capi- 
tal is  likely  to  ask  what  he  may  do  for  a  living  while  his 
orchards  are  coming  into  bearing.  To  suggest  an  answer 
is  still  further  to  discuss  some  phases  of  orchard  manage- 
ment; and  this  question  we  may  here  consider. 

LIVE-STOCK    ON    FRUIT-FARMS 

There  was  a  full  crop  of  apples  in  1906  in  one  of  the  large 
orchards  in  Western  Colorado.  Part  of  the  trees  had 
been  bearing  for  fifteen  years,  and  part  had  just  begun  to 
bear  heavily.  In  the  young  orchard  95  per  cent  of  the 
crop  graded  " extras"  and  "firsts."  Half  the  apples  on 
the  older  trees  were  below  these  grades,  being  undersized 
and  " off  color."  Another  old  orchard  bearing  a  low-grade 
fruit  was  heavily  manured  with  rich  barnyard  manure, 

212 


Other  Phases  of  Orchard  Management        213 

well  worked  in,  and  the  following  year  the  fruit  was  as 
good  as  when  the  trees  first  came  into  bearing. 

Comparatively  few  fruit-growers  in  irrigated  sections 
are  located  where  manure  can  be  bought,  and  if  their 
trees  need  this  kind  of  food,  animals  must  be  kept  to 
produce  it.  The  kind  of  stock  to  raise  or  to  feed  will 
depend  on  the  cost  of  feed  and  the  area  of  land  not  in 
trees  that  adjoins  the  orchards. 

Horses 

On  some  fruit-farms  it  is  practicable  to  use  brood  mares 
to  do  all  work  requiring  horse-power.  Then  colts  may 
be  raised.  Heavy  draft-horses  are  easiest  to  raise  and 
the  most  profitable  when  the  grower  keeps  only  a  few 
and  does  not  make  a  business  of  horse-raising.  Every 
extra  pound  above  1600  pounds  weight  is  worth  fifty 
cents,  and  every  pound  above  1800  pounds  weight  is 
worth  one  dollar  in  a  well-built,  sound  horse,  having  good 
action. 

The  fruit-grower  should  select  mares  of  good  draft 
type  weighing  1200  to  1800  pounds  each,  according  to 
the  work  he  has  to  do,  choosing  the  breed  he  prefers. 
Regular  hard  work,  if  slow  and  steady,  is  beneficial  to 
mares  in  foal.  Care  should  be  taken  to  use  wide  shafts 
and  single-trees,  and  the  pregnant  mare  should  not  be 
driven  fast  nor  turned  quickly.  At  least  half  the  hay 
should  be  alfalfa  in  order  to  develop  the  unborn  colt. 
Native  hay  may  comprise  the  remainder,  or  oat  straw  or 
corn-fodder.  Oats  is  the  best  grain,  but  when  working 
hard,  the  mare  may  be  fed  corn  or  rolled  barley. 

The  colt  should  be  halter-broken  when  a  week  old, 


214  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

and  should  not  be  allowed  to  follow  the  dam  when  she  is 
at  work.  It  is  best  to  let  the  colt  suckle  at  the  middle 
of  each  half  day  as  well  as  at  regular  mealtimes.  If 
the  mare  is  warm,  she  should  be  allowed  to  become 
thoroughly  cool  before  the  colt  suckles. 

The  colt  should  be  encouraged  to  eat  grain  early,  and 
after  he  eats  well,  should  be  fed  all  the  oats  and  alfalfa 
hay  he  will  consume  clean.  It  is  well  to  feed  some  native 
hay,  oat,  straw,  or  corn-fodder.  Carrots  are  good  for  both 
mare  and  colt.  The  colt  should  have  ample  exercise  and 
good  shelter,  and  should  be  pushed  to  make  a  gain  every 
day  until  he  reaches  full  mature  weight.  A  well-fed  and 
well-managed  colt  at  one  year  will  weigh  one-half  as  much 
as  when  fully  matured.  Well-bred  draft-colts  have  been 
fed  on  alfalfa  and  oats  to  a  weight  of  900  pounds  each 
the  day  they  were  one  year  old.  The  most  serious  loss 
usually  occurs  by  letting  the  gain  stop  the  second  winter. 

"Baby  Beef"  (Calves] 

Feeding  for  "baby  beef"  is  profitable  in  fruit-growing 
sections  where  alfalfa  is  cheap.  With  feed  close  to  the 
feed  yards,  one  man  can  take  care  of  200  calves.  There 
is  a  good  profit  in  the  feeding,  and  a  large  supply  of  manure 
for  the  orchard.  The  work  is  done  when  labor  is  lightest 
in  the  orchard. 

There  are  two  methods:  one  to  market  the  calves  fat 
at  the  end  of  the  first  winter,  and  the  other  to  " finish" 
them  at  some  time  during  the  second  winter.  The  latter 
plan  is  most  profitable  where  cheap  summer  pasture  is 
available.  With  both  methods  the  calves  should  be 
weaned  while  in  prime  condition  and  still  gaining  every 


Other  Phases  of  Orchard  Management       215 

day,  and  the  feeding  should  begin  as  soon  as  the 
calves  are  taken  from  their  dams.  Before  being  weaned 
the  calves  should  be  vaccinated  to  protect  against  black- 
leg. 

The  foundation  of  baby  beef  production  is  in  feeding 
all  the  alfalfa  hay  and  roots  the  calves  can  be  induced  to 
eat,  and  very  little  grain.  The  alfalfa  should  be  cut  when 
the  first  few  blooms  appear  and  cured,  to  save  the  leaves, 
as  for  this  kind  of  feeding  a  pound  of  leaves  is  worth  more 
than  four  pounds  of  stems.  The  roots  may  be  sugar- 
beets,  stock-beets,  mangels,  or  ruta-bagas,  and  should  be 
sliced  for  feeding.  Give  the  calves  access  to  good  straw, 
as  a  little  will  overcome  the  too  laxative  effect  of  the  early 
cut  alfalfa.  Oat,  wheat,  and  barley  hays  and  corn-fodder 
are  good  to  feed  for  variety.  The  calves  should  have 
good  shelter  and  free  access  to  pure  water.  The  more 
they  can  be  induced  to  lie  down,  the  greater  will  be  the 
gains;  and  a  dry  place  on  which  to  lie  should  always  be 
ready.  Every  time  that  a  calf  stands  up  after  eating 
because  there  is  snow  or  mud  in  the  yard,  he  loses  money 
for  the  feeder. 

If  the  calves  are  to  be  marketed  at  14  months,  they 
should  be  fed  grain  from  the  time  of  weaning,  starting 
with  one  pound  per  head  a  day  and  slowly  increasing 
to  four  to  six  pounds  per  head  daily,  feeding  only  suffi- 
cient grain  to  keep  up  a  daily  gain  of  two  pounds  per  calf. 
The  grain  may  be  either  corn,  oats,  or  barley,  or  a  mixture 
of  any  two  or  all  three  of  these  feeds,  and  it  should  be 
crushed.  Grain  should  never  be  fed  alone.  Either  mix 
it  with  an  equal  weight  of  fine,  leafy  alfalfa,  or  else  sprinkle 
it  on  the  sliced  roots.  With  this  system  well-bred  beef 


216  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

calves  will  weigh  700  to  800  pounds  at  14  months  of  age. 
Heifers  fatten  better  than  steers. 

If  the  calves  are  to  be  marketed  the  second  winter, 
they  should  be  handled  as  above  through  the  first  winter 
except  that  no  grain  should  be  fed.  They  should  be 
pushed  as  fast  as  can  be  done  with  hay,  fodder,  and  roots. 
The  second  summer  they  should  be  kept  on  good  pasture 
and  put  in  the  feed  lots  in  the  fall  while  in  prime  con- 
dition. The  first  30  to  60  days  feed  hay  and  roots,  then 
begin  with  a  light  feed  of  grain,  slowly  increasing  until 
February  first,  when  they  will  be  eating  6  to  8  pounds 
per  head  daily.  At  this  time,  if  well  bred  and  properly 
managed,  they  will  be  ready  for  the  market,  and  should 
average  1200  pounds  each. 

Dairying 

Dairying  is  especially  adapted  to  high-priced  land  as, 
if  necessary,  dairy  cows  can  be  kept  profitably  on  a  limited 
area  and  not  pastured  at  all.  Manure  is  valuable  in 
proportion  to  the  character  of  the  feed,  and  as  cows 
giving  milk  need  good  feeding  throughout  the  year,  their 
manure  is  rich. 

An  acre  of  good  alfalfa  cut  and  fed  green  to  cows  con- 
fined in  a  yard  will  supply  ample  feed  for  five  good  ani- 
mals throughout  the  summer.  A  ton  of  alfalfa  hay, 
cut  when  the  first  few  blooms  appear  and  cured  to  save 
all  the  leaves,  is  equal  for  milk  production  to  a  ton  of 
bran  and  usually  costs  about  one-third  as  much. 

Fruit-growers  deal  with  high-priced  land  and  high- 
priced  labor,  and  they  must  be  careful  to  select  cows  of 
extreme  dairy  type.  They  cannot  afford  to  feed  and 


Oilier  P liases  of  Orchard  Management       217 

milk  cows  that  use  part  or  most  of  their  feed  to  put  on 
flesh.  Under  prevailing  conditions  in  irrigated  fruit  sec- 
tions, the  yearly  income  from  the  dairy  cow  varies  from 
$25  to  $120,  depending  largely  on  the  type  of  cow  selected. 
The  lower  return  does  not  pay  expenses,  but  the  higher 
amount  gives  a  large  net  profit. 

The  breed  is  a  matter  of  indifference,  but  the  nearer 
each  individual  approaches  the  extreme  dairy  type,  the 
greater  will  be  the  profits  from  judicious  feeding  and 
management.  In  most  fruit-growing  sections  selling  milk 
or  cream  is  more  profitable  than  marketing  butter. 

Alfalfa  should  be  the  basis  for  milk  production.  In 
the  summer  it  may  be  cut  daily  and  fed  slightly  wilted. 
Alfalfa  for  hay  for  dairy  cows  should  be  cut  when  the 
first  few  blooms  appear,  cured  with  as  little  exposure  as 
possible  in  order  to  save  the  leaves,  and  should  have  a 
bright  green  color.  A  cow  of  the  right  type  can  be  fed 
profitably  all  of  this  hay  she  will  eat.  Early  cut  alfalfa 
hay  is  usually  too  laxative,  and  this  trouble  may  be  over- 
come by  allowing  the  cow  to  eat  all  the  good  clean  straw 
she  wants.  A  cow  will  usually  eat  2  or  3  pounds  of  straw 
daily. 

Fed  all  the  alfalfa  she  will  eat,  a  cow  needs  some  grain 
rich  in  starch.  Corn,  barley,  or  oats,  or  a  mixture  of  these, 
is  the  most  profitable,  depending  on  the  price.  The 
amount  of  grain  to  feed  varies  with  the  cow.  Some  cows 
will  return  a  profit  on  4  pounds  daily;  others  can  profit- 
ably be  fed  8  to  10  pounds  daily. 

Sugar-beets,  stock-beets,  carrots,  mangels,  and  cull 
apples  may  be  fed  up  to  25  pounds  per  cow  daily.  With 
most  cows,  a  larger  quantity  is  detrimental.  The  trim- 


218  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

mings  from  market-garden  products,  such  as  celery  and 
cabbage  leaves,  are  relished  and  save  hay.  All  feed 
should  be  given  after,  and  not  either  before  or  during, 
milking.  There  is  then  no  danger  of  tainting  the  milk. 
The  dairy  cow  needs  good  shelter  and  plenty  of  water 
and  salt  both  summer  and  winter.  Petting  and  kindness 
will  increase  both  the  yield  and  richness  of  the  milk. 

Hogs 

Hogs  are  profitable  consumers  of  cull  fruit.  They  are 
often  fattened  on  peaches  alone.  Apples  can  be  used  to 
save  at  least  half  the  grain.  On  several  farms  in  irri- 
gated fruit  sections,  hogs  have  been  fitted  for  market  on 
squash  and  alfalfa  pasture  or  hay.  The  squash  puts  the 
animals  in  good  condition,  but  gives  the  flesh  an  objec- 
tionable yellow  color.  A  ton  of  sugar-beets  fed  with  grain 
to  fattening  hogs  takes  the  place  of  200  pounds  of  grain. 

Hogs  selected  for  breeding-stock  should  belong  to  pro- 
lific strains,  with  sows  that  regularly  have  six  to  ten  pigs 
at  a  litter.  Any  dark-haired  breed  is  .satisfactory.  The 
intense  sunshine  in  irrigated  fruit  sections  blisters  white 
hogs,  and  they  usually  do  not  thrive.  Well-built  hogs, 
having  well-arched  backs,  well  developed  in  shoulder, 
heart,  loin,  and  ham,  and  well  up  on  their  feet  should  be 
chosen. 

The  hogs  should  have  alfalfa  every  day  in  the  year  — 
pasture  in  summer,  leaves  from  alfalfa  hay  in  winter. 
It  does  not  pay  to  grind  or  cut  alfalfa  hay  for  hogs,  as  the 
woody  stems  are  detrimental.  The  hogs  should  have 
dry,  warm  shelter  every  night  in  the  year,  well  ventilated, 
but  without  drafts. 


Other  Phases  of  Orchard  Management       219 

Corn,  barley,  wheat,  and  field  peas  are  the  grains  avail- 
able for  fattening.  Barley  makes  a  better-flavored  pork 
than  corn.  It  should  be  either  rolled  or  soaked  before 
feeding.  Good  gains  are  secured  from  feeding  wheat, 
but  the  meat  is  tough,  and  both  meat  and  fat  have  a  dark 
color.  Where  wheat  is  the  cheapest  feed,  the  hogs 
should  be  fed  the  last  four  to  six  weeks  on  corn  or  barley. 
This  will  whiten  and  harden  the  flesh  and  give  it  a  better 
flavor.  Wheat  should  be  either  ground  or  soaked. 
Field  peas  make  a  specially  fine-flavored  pork.  It  is 
customary  to  fatten  pigs  by  letting  them  pasture  the 
unharvested  ripe  crop;  sometimes  the  ripe  peas  and  vines 
are  cut  and  stacked  like  hay,  and  the  entire  dried  product, 
peas  and  hay,  fed  to  the  hogs.  An  acre  of  good  peas 
will  make  400  pounds  of  gain  on  hogs  when  pastured, 
and  from  600  to  800  pounds  of  gain  on  hogs  when  harvested 
and  fed  to  them  in  small  pens. 

While  suckling  the  pigs,  the  sow  should  be  fed  liberally 
with  milk-producing  feeds,  such  as  grain,  alfalfa,  and  roots. 
A  limited  supply  of  cull  fruit  is  good,  but  if  given  all 
the  fruit  she  will  eat,  the  tendency  is  seriously  to  reduce 
the  milk  flow.  A  few  days  before  the  pigs  are  to  be 
weaned,  the  sow's  feed  should  be  reduced  to  water  and 
alfalfa,  and  she  will  become  dry  without  injury  to  her 
udder. 

The  pigs  should  not  be  weaned  earlier  than  eight  weeks 
of  age,  and  ten  weeks  is  better.  It  is  best  to  feed  them 
three  to  five  times  daily  when  first  weaned.  In  two  weeks 
feeding  twice  daily  is  sufficient.  When  the  pig  reaches 
a  weight  between  50  and  75  pounds,  feed  from  one-half 
to  one  pound  of  grain  daily  at  night,  and  let  him  spend 


220  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

the  day  eating  alfalfa,  cull  fruit,  and  other  available  cheap 
roughness.  When  finishing  time  arrives,  feed  twice  daily 
all  the  grain,  fruit,  roots,  and  hay  he  will  eat.  To  produce 
pork  profitably,  at  least  half  the  total  weight  of  the 
finished  hog  must  have  been  made  from  rough  feed. 

Poultry 

One  hundred  laying  hens  can  be  kept  on  each  acre  of 
a  full-grown  orchard  without  interfering  with  the  regular 
operations.  Four  hundred  laying  hens  can  be  kept  on 
each  acre  of  a  newly  set  orchard.  An  experienced  poultry- 
grower  can  make  from  one  to  two  dollars  net  per  year  per 
hen. 

The  hens  should  be  kept  in  small  numbers  in  cheap, 
portable  houses.  With  the  run  of  the  orchard  a  house 
8  X  10  feet  will  shelter  thirty-five  hens  and  can  be  built 
for  $15  to  $25.  It  can  be  easily  moved  by  four  men  or 
by  one  man  and  a  team.  No  floor  is  needed,  and  it  is 
preferable  to  use  muslin  in  the  place  of  glass  for  windows. 
The  house  should  be  tight  on  the  north,  east,  and  west 
ends. 

The  hens  should  be  forced  to  their  full  laying  capacity, 
and  in  February  and  March  at  least  two  hundred  chicks 
should  be  hatched  for  each  one  hundred  hens.  All  the 
cockerels  and  half  the  pullets  should  be  marketed  for 
broilers  at  a  weight  of  1J4  to  !}/£  pounds.  Sell  all  the 
old  hens  except  the  best  ones  in  May  and  early  June, 
when  the  price  is  highest.  The  young  pullets  will  begin 
laying  in  August. 

Many  successful  poultry-men  make  wheat  half  the 
ration  for  laying  hens,  and  for  the  other  half  feed  a  variety 


Other  Phases  of  Orchard  Management       221 

of  grains,  such  as  corn,  oats;  kafir,  and  barley.  A  self- 
feeding  hopper  is  kept  before  the  hens  filled  with  dry- 
meat  meal.  If  hens  have  not  been  fed  the  meal,  they  are 
likely  to  gorge  themselves  at  first.  This  can  be  pre- 
vented by  using  for  a  short  time  a  mixture  of  half-meat 
meal  and  half-bran.  Alfalfa  should  be  fed  every  day  in 
the  year. 

MAKING    A    LIVING    WHILE    THE    TREES    ARE    COMING    INTO 
BEARING 

This  is  a  subject  that  need  not  worry  any  able-bodied 
and  willing  man,  as  work  is  always  plentiful  in  a  fruit 
country.  Moreover,  there  are  many  things  that  may  be 
grown  between  the  rows  of  young  trees  which  will  bring 
good  returns.  As  a  rule,  the  double-cropping  of  orchards 
should  be  discouraged  for  the  reason  that  the  trees  are 
likely  to  be  neglected  or  misused  and  the  soil  ruined. 
But  if  due  care  is  exercised,  particularly  not  to  over- 
irrigate,  crops  of  various  kinds  may  be  grown  between 
the  rows  for  several  years.  When  this  is  done,  a  strip 
at  least  five  feet  wide  should  be  left  on  either  side  of  the 
tree  row  for  cultivation  and  irrigation.  It  should  always 
be  remembered  that  the  young  trees  are  of  first  impor- 
tance, and  upon  their  present  health  and  vigor  depends  the 
future  usefulness  of  the  orchard.  It  would  be  better 
to  lose  an  entire  season's  work  rather  than  to  stunt  the 
trees  by  an  injudicious  irrigation. 

Potatoes  may  be  mentioned  as  a  crop  well  adapted  to 
growing  in  young  orchards.  It  is  a  staple  commodity 
and  is  often  shipped  across  the  continent.  But  in  order 
to  do  this  a  community  must  produce  a  sufficient  quantity 


222 


Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 


to  ship  in  car-load  lots.  Potatoes  thrive  best  in  the  lighter 
mesa  soils  as  a  rule,  but  occasionally  bbttom  lands  are 
found  that  are  adapted  to  the  crop.  Potato  land  should 
not  become  hard  and  puddled,  and  it  should  have  good 
natural  under  drainage.  In  order  to  be  successful  under 


FIG.  59. —  Cantaloupes  Growing  in  Young  Orchard. 

arid  conditions,  potatoes  must  be  grown  in  high  ridges 
and  be  given  very  deep  cultivation. 

The  cantaloupe  is  another  crop  that  in  some  sections 
is  grown  in  young  orchards.  (See  Fig.  59.) 

Most  any  of  the  vegetables  may  be  grown,  but  with  all 
such  crops  the  question  of  markets  should  be  carefully 
considered  before  any  large  area  is  planted.  In  any 
section  there  is  always  something  in  the  way  of  vege- 


Other  Phases  of  Orchard  Management       223 

tables  that  may  be  grown  at  a  profit.  Many  of  the  towns 
in  the  fruit  districts  now  have  canning  factories,  and  in 
the  past  it  has  been  difficult  for  them  to  secure  a  suffi- 
cient supply  of  such  things  as  tomatoes,  corn,  and  beans. 
Many  of  these  vegetables  are  very  easy  to  grow  and  with 
good  care  enormous  yields  are  secured. 

The  canning  industry  is  bound  to  grow,  and  it  provides 
a  means  of  using  much  fruit  that  does  not  ship  well. 
But  in  order  to  round  out  the  season  to  advantage  as  well 
as  to  supply  demands,  many  vegetables  are  required.  It 
has  been  difficult  to  find  enough  people  in  the  various  dis- 
tricts to  grow  sufficient  vegetables  to  supply  the  factories. 

We  do  not  like  to  recommend  the  growing  of  small- 
fruits  in  the  orchard  for  the  reason  that  the  trees  are  so 
often  injured  by  overwatering.  A  much  better  plan  is 
to  set  aside  an  acre  or  two  that  may  be  used  exclusively 
for  this  purpose.  There  has  always  been  a  ready  sale 
for  small-fruits. 

There  are  always  great  possibilities  with  poultry;  and 
a  few  hogs  and  a  cow  or  two  should  find  a  place  on  the 
fruit-farm. 

Taking  the  situation  as  a  whole,  it  would  seem  that 
the  opportunities  for  a  small-fruit  farmer,  not  only  to 
make  a  living,  but  something  of  an  income  as  well,  while 
his  trees  are  maturing,  are  encouraging.  In  fact,  one  does 
not  need  to  ride  far  through  the  fruit  districts  in  order 
to  find  a  number  of  men  who  are  accomplishing  this. 

If  one  is  endowed  with  sufficient  strength  to  warrant 
his  attempting  farm  work  at  all,  he  need  have  no  fear 
of  being  able  to  make  a  comfortable  living,  at  least,  while 
his  trees  are  coming  to  the  bearing  age. 


CHAPTER  XV 
VARIETIES 

THE  question  of  choice  of  varieties  is,  fortunately, 
quickly  answered.  When  orchards  were  first  being 
planted,  those  kinds  that  were  favorites  in  the  eastern 
homes  were  given  preference.  When  it  was  found  that 
fruit  could  be  grown  at  all,  many  of  the  early  orchardists, 
wishing  to  show  what  could  be  done,  planted  many 
varieties.  Thus  it  happened  that  the  older  orchards 
often  contained  many  varieties,  most  of  which  have  not 
proved  to  be  well  adapted  to  arid  conditions. 

So  long  as  there  were  local  markets,  the  kind  of  fruit 
mattered  little.  But  when  it  became  necessary  to  com- 
pete in  the  markets  of  the  world,  conditions  were  changed. 
Home  markets  were  then  out  of  the  question  except  in 
a  limited  way;  and  because  of  the  great  distance,  car- 
load lots  were  the  units  of  shipment.  Buyers  could  not 
afford  to  pay  freight  on  anything  but  the  best,  and  in 
order  to  be  successful  in  the  markets,  they  must  have  large 
quantities  of  a  certain  kind.  They  want  to  know,  for 
instance,  how  many  cars  of  fancy  Jonathan  a  certain  as- 
sociation or  dealer  can  furnish.  Such  information  gives 
a  basis  upon  which  a  stable  business  may  be  conducted. 
The  buyers  soon  found  that  a  few  varieties  were  in 
greatest  demand,  and  naturally  calls  came  to  the  growers 
for  an  increasing  supply. 

Thus  it  is  that  the  consumers  in  distant  states  have 

224 


226  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

largely  determined  what  varieties  we  shall  grow.  Foi 
these  reasons  the  number  of  varieties  of  leading  com- 
mercial apples  has  been  reduced  to  five  or  six,  and  of 
peaches  to  three  or  four. 

When  the  question  of  varieties  for  planting  arises,  it 
is  always  best  to  consult  with  the  men  who  have  charge 
of  the  marketing,  as  they  are  in  position  to  know  the  kinds 
that  are  in  most  demand. 

The  pleasure  of  testing  new  fruits  would  best  be  in- 
dulged in  an  amateur  way.  New  kinds  are  at  a  disad- 
vantage on  the  market  as  they  cannot  ordinarily  be 
furnished  in  quantity.  It  is  best  for  a  locality  to  develop 
a  reputation  on  a  few  varieties  and  adhere  closely  to  them. 
Eastern  people  are  now  fairly  familiar  with  the  Western 
Jonathan  and  Winesap,  and  the  Esopus  (Spitzenburg) 
and  Newtown  Pippins  of  the  Northwest. 

Will  it  pay  to  plant  other  kinds  on  soils  that  will  grow 
the  foregoing  varieties  to  perfection  and  trust  to  the  un- 
certain public  taste  to  create  a  demand?  We  think  it  is 
a  better  plan  to  grow  the  very  best  Jonathans  or  Wine- 
saps  and  then  learn  to  pack  them  in  the  very  best  way; 
or,  if  these  varieties  are  not  adapted  to  the  soil,  the  grower 
may  specialize  on  one  or  two  of  the  other  well-known 
varieties  that  will  be  certain  to  succeed. 

In  considering  the  list  of  apples  that  are  grown  in  the 
mountain  region,  we  find  that  the  varieties  that  do  best 
in  Missouri,  Kansas,  and  other  states  in  the  same  latitude 
have  been  most  grown  here  in  spite  of  the  higher  alti- 
tude. These  include  such  varieties  as  Winesap,  Jonathan, 
Grimes,  White  Pearmain,  Rome  (Beauty),  Willow  Twig, 
Rails,  and  the  Ben  Davis  family.  All  of  these  varieties 


Varieties  227 

reach  their  highest  development  in  the  arid  country  if 
the  soil  is  adaptable;  otherwise  they  are  likely  to  be  shy 
bearers,  the  fruit  undersized,  or  lacking  in  color.  The 
Esopus  (Spitzenburg)  and  Newtown  Pippin  are  apparent 
exceptions  to  this  rule,  but  as  yet  they  are  successfully 
grown  only  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Cascade  Mountains 
in  the  states  of  Oregon  and  Washington. 

Ben  Davis  should  be  left  for  the  ordinary  orchardist, 
although  it  must  be  said  that  this  much-maligned  apple 
has  probably  made  more  money  for  our  growers  than 
any  other  one  variety.  But  with  the  increasing  cost  of 
box  material  and  of  labor  it  is  doubtful  whether  we  can 
now  afford  to  plant  it,  for  it  is  a  cheap  apple. 

Adaptation  of  Varieties  to  Soils 

The  adaptation  of  varieties  to  soils  is  a  question  of  much 
importance  and  one  to  which  very  little  attention  has  been 
given.  Most  varieties  will  grow  and  bear  some  fruit 
on  nearly  all  soils,  but  when  we  study  the  results,  we 
find  that  there  is  a  marked  difference  in  behavior  of  a 
certain  variety  in  the  same  locality.  The  effect  of  soil 
on  a  product  is  best  illustrated  with  the  potato.  This 
crop  is  a  failure  in  many  parts  of  the  inter-mountain 
country,  but  paying  crops  may  be  grown  in  any  locality, 
if  what  we  know  as  potato  soil  can  be  found  in  which  to 
grow  them.  The  experienced  farmer  does  not  attempt 
to  grow  potatoes  commercially  unless  he  knows  that  he 
has  "potato  land." 

A  study  of  the  adaptation  of  varieties  to  soils  indicates 
that  it  is  largely  a  question  of  the  character  of  growth 
of  the  variety.  In  the  case  of  apples  most  varieties 


228  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

may  be  classed,  for  this  purpose,  under  the  two  general 
heads  of  vigorous-growing  and  weak-growing  kinds. 
Most  varieties  will  grow  more  vigorously,  as  a  rule,  in 
the  heavy  soils  than  in  the  lighter  ones.  The  strong- 
growing  kinds  are  likely  to  be  shy  bearers  of  poorly  colored 
fruit  when  planted  on  heavy  soil,  as  the  energies  of  the 
tree  are  largely  used  in  growth.  On  the  other  hand, 
varieties  that  are  inclined  to  overbear  on  the  light  soils 
will  make  more  growth  on  heavy  soils,  and  consequently 
they  will  produce  less  fruit,  but  of  a  better  size. 

The  proper  coloring  of  the  fruit  is  an  important  factor, 
not  to  be  overlooked.  Not  all  of  the  slow-growing  kinds 
will  bear  highly  colored  fruit  when  grown  on  heavy  land. 
These  varieties  that  are  late  in  ripening  are  specially 
liable  to  be  poorly  colored.  High  color  usually  indicates 
high  quality  for  the  variety,  no  matter  where  the  fruit 
is  grown.  There  are,  no  doubt,  exceptions  to  this  state- 
ment, but  ordinarily  it  may  be  adopted  as  a  rule,  notwith- 
standing the  strenuous  objections  to  the  contrary  made 
by  our  eastern  contemporaries. 

Adaptation  of  the  Standard  Varieties  of  Apples 

The  following  discussion  of  the  behavior  of  varieties, 
drawn  from  the  experience  of  growers  and  from  personal 
observation,  will  illustrate  the  relation  of  varieties  of 
apples  to  soil. 

The  Jonathan  does  best  on  a  rich  mesa  soil;  that  is, 
bears  fruit  of  good  size,  color,  and  quality.  More  highly 
colored  apples,  but  of  smaller  size,  are  produced  on  the 
lighter  soils.  It  succeeds  nearly  as  well  on  the  sandy 
bottom  lands,  but  does  not  color  as  well  on  heavy  land. 


Varieties  229 

The  Grimes  and  White  Pearmain  are  comparable  in  their 
behavior.  The  Grimes  should  almost  be  classed  with 
the  heavy  growers,  but  neither  it  nor  the  White  Pearmain 
bears  well  or  produces  fruit  of  the  best  color  on  the  heavier 
soils.  Probably  the  main  reason  why  the  latter  variety 
is  ever  reported  from  eastern  markets  as  being  "off  in 
flavor"  is  because  many  of  them  are  grown  on  poor,  heavy 
soils  and  are  not  properly  matured. 

The  Winesap  is  not  a  vigorous  grower  and  is  inclined 
to  overbear,  as  well  as  to  produce  fruit  of  undersize  when 
the  trees  reach  maturity.  It  develops  its  best  color, 
however,  on  rich,  well-drained  soils.  The  tendency  to 
overproduction  and  weak  growth  so  noticeable  on  light 
soils  may  be  counteracted  to  some  extent  by  systematic 
pruning  and  thinning. 

The  Missouri  (Pippin)  is  in  the  same  class  with  the 
Winesap,  being,  perhaps,  the  best  example  we  have  of  a 
slow-growing,  overproductive,  and  consequently  a  short- 
lived tree.  It  does  best  on  the  heavier  soils. 

Rome  (Beauty)  attains  more  nearly  to  perfection  on 
a  medium  soil,  that  is,  land  neither  too  light  nor  too  heavy. 
The  land  should  be  well  drained  and  fertile.  The  fruit 
colors  poorly  on  heavy  soils,  and  the  tree  makes  but  little 
better  growth.  The  fruit  is  liable  to  be  "off  color," 
anyway,  unless  the  fall  weather  is  suitable  for  ripening. 
Therefore,  if  Rome  is  to  remain  a  standard  variety,  it 
should  be  planted  only  on  suitable  soil.  The  tree  makes 
an  indifferent,  upright  growth,  with  an  ill-shapen  trunk, 
particularly  when  young.  It  is  more  satisfactory  when 
top-worked  on  a  vigorous,  spreading  variety,  as  the 
Northern  Spy. 


230 


Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 


The  Newtown  Pippins,  both  Green  and  Yellow,  are  very 
susceptible  to  soil  properties,  and  the  areas  in  which  they 
are  at  all  satisfactory  are  very  limited.  For  this  reason 
they  are  not  much  grown  outside  of  favored  localities  in 


FIG.  61.  —  A  Newtown  Pippin  Orchard.     North  Yakima,  Washington. 

Washington  and  Oregon  (Figs.  60,  61),  yet  they  have  been 
known  to  grow  and  bear  well  on  a  rocky  hillside  and 
almost  refuse  to  bear  on  heavy  or  medium  heavy  lands. 
The  Ben  Davis  group,  which  includes  Gano  and  Black 
Ben  Davis,  is  cosmopolitan  in  its  adaptation,  as  it  sue- 


Varieties 


231 


ceeds  fairly  well  on  all  sorts  of  soils  where  apple  trees  will, 
grow  at  all.  All  the  kinds  bear  well  on  heavy  soils  and 
make  satisfactory  growth  on  the  lighter  lands.  The 
trees  need  more  pruning  in  the  latter  case  to  produce 
more  growth,  thus  preventing  the  production  of  an  over- 


FIG.  62. — An  Esopus  (Spitzenburg)  Orchard,  Hood  River,  Oregon. 

load  of  small  apples.     Higher-colored  fruit  may  usually 
be  expected,  however,  on  the  lighter  soils. 

The  Arkansas,  commonly  and  improperly  known  as 
Mammoth  Black  Twig,  usually  overgrows  and  is  non- 
productive on  heavy  soils,  though  it  is  of  the  Winesap 
type.  It  does  well  on  light  mesa  soils,  where  the  trees 
are  usually  of  good  size  and  productive.  The  fruit  is  also 
of  good  size,  uniform,  and  of  good  color. 


232  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

Arkansas  Black  has  not  been  very  satisfactory  as  a  rule. 
It  does  best  on  light  mesa  soils.  It  is  also  of  the  Winesap 
type  of  fruit  and  a  vigorous  grower. 

The  Spitzenburg  does  well  on  medium  soils,  but  is 
very  susceptible  to  blight;  consequently  it  is  but  little 
grown  except  in  the  Cascade  Mountains,  where  it  finds 
a  congenial  home  (Fig.  62). 

Winter  Banana  is  a  weak  grower  ordinarily  on  heavy 
soils,  but  makes  a  good  growth  on  rich  lands  if  the  drainage 
is  good.  Where  the  conditions  are  adaptable,  the  fruit  is 
beautiful  and  of  high  quality.  These  characters  are  not 
well  brought  out  when  grown  on  heavy  land.  This 
variety  is  also  very  susceptible  to  blight. 

Rails  makes  good  growth  on  rich  mesa  soils,  and  the 
fruit  colors  well.  The  fruit  is  borne  in  clusters,  and  there- 
fore the  trees  are  very  likely  to  overbear.  It  makes  a 
strong  growth  on  heavy  lands,  and  the  fruit  is  often  poorly 
colored.  This  variety  often  produces  fruit  when  others 
fail,  on  account  of  the  lateness  of  the  blossoming  period. 

Mclntosh  is  rather  a  medium  to  strong  grower,  has  a 
fruiting-habit  something  like  White  Winter  Pearmain, 
long  and  strong  limbs  with  short  spurs.  It  is  somewhat 
inclined  to  bear  in  clusters,  and  on  alternate  years,  if  not 
thinned,  often  so  bunchy  that  part  of  the  fruits  are  pushed 
off  before  the  picking  season.  The  fruit  is  inclined  to  drop 
if  not  picked  on  time.  It  would  be  called  a  prolific 
variety  adapted  to  medium  to  strong  soil.  It  is  particu- 
larly adapted  to  Montana  conditions,  where  it  becomes 
one  of  the  finest  winter  apples  (Fig.  63). 


234  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

Choice  of  Varieties 

In  summing  up  this  list  of  varieties  we  find  that  there  are 
seven  that  do  best  on  rich,  medium  mesa  soils  or  their 
equivalent.  These  are:  Ben  Davis,  Gano,  Grimes,  Jona- 
than, Rome,  White  Pearmain,  Winesap,  and  Winter  Ba- 
nana. The  Missouri  is  distinctly  a  variety  for  heavy  land, 
and  the  Arkansas  as  distinctly  a  variety  for  light  land, 
while  Ben  Davis  and  Gano  may  be  fairly  successful  on 
any  orchard  land. 

What,  then,  is  the  grower  to  plant  who  is  not  the  possessor 
of  rich  loamy  soil?  He  should,  first  of  all,  put  his  land 
in  the  best  possible  condition  by  plowing  under  green- 
manures,  and  then  strive  to  maintain  it  by  judicious  use 
of  tillage  and  shade-crops.  Personally  we  would  select, 
for  the  commercial  orchard,  from  the  following  varieties, 
according  to  the  character  of  soil :  Gano,  Grimes,  Jonathan, 
Rome,  and  Winesap.  Oregon  and  Washington  growers 
will  of  course  include  Newtown  Pippin  and  Esopus  (Spit- 
zenburg),  and  Montana  growers  the  Mclntosh. 

Local  markets  and  express  shipments  are  important 
factors  in  apple  marketing  in  the  lesser  fruit  districts. 
Early  apples  are  therefore  profitable  and  much  grown. 
The  commoner  early  kinds  are  the  (Duchess  of)  Oldenburg, 
Haas,  Plumb  Cider,  Utter,  and  Wealthy. 

For  the  many  localities  in  the  higher  altitudes,  where 
apples  are  grown  only  for  home  uses,  the  following  varie- 
ties have  proved  the  most  hardy :  (Duchess  of)  Oldenburg, 
Northwestern  Greening,  Wealthy,  Whitney  No.  20,  Crab, 
and  Yellow  Transparent. 


Varieties  235 

Description  of  Varieties  of  Apples 

Arkansas.  —  Commonly  but  erroneously  called  Mammoth 
Black  Twig.  This  variety  very  closely  resembles  the  Paragon, 
but  it  is  known  to  have  had  a  separate  origin.  Tree  rather  large, 
vigorous,  somewhat  spreading;  fruit  large,  uniform,  roundish,  in- 
clined to  conic,  somewhat  ribbed,  uniform  in  shape;  skin  becom- 
ing deep  yellow,  largely  overspread  with  deep  dull  red,  obscurely 
striped  with  darker  red;  flesh  tinged  with  yellow,  very  firm, 
moderately  juicy,  subacid,  crisp,  good.  Season  December  to  May. 

Arkansas  Black.  —  Tree  moderately  vigorous,  somewhat  spread- 
ing. Fruit  medium  to  large  in  size,  nearly  round;  skin  yellow, 
but  usually  pretty  much  covered  with  a  lively  red  which  becomes 
almost  black  on  the  exposed  side;  flesh  yellow,  firm,  juicy,  sub- 
acid,  good  to  very  good.  December  to  April.  This  variety  has 
not  been  productive,  as  a  rule. 

Ben  Davis.  —  Too  well  known  to  need  a  description.  The 
fruit  hi  the  inter-mountain  region  is  beautiful  when  well  grown, 
of  good  size  and  a  better  quality  than  when  grown  in  many  other 
regions.  The  Gano  is  largely  replacing  the  Ben  Davis,  as  it  has 
all  its  characteristics,  with  better  size  and  color,  and  perhaps 
better  quality.  .The  tree  has  been  one  of  the  first  to  be  affected 
by  arsenical  poisoning.  The  buds  are  very  susceptible  to  late 
spring  frost,  and  the  fruit  is  easily  rusted  by  spray  mixtures. 

Esopus  (Spitzenburg).  — Tree  moderately  vigorous,  somewhat 
spreading.  Fruit  should  average  large,  uniform,  roundish  conic, 
somewhat  ribbed;  skin  tough,  waxy,  deep  yellow,  usually  covered 
with  bright  dark  red;  flesh  tinged  with  yellow,  firm,  crisp,  tender, 
juicy,  aromatic,  very  good  to  best.  Season  November  to  March 
or  later  in  cold  storage.  The  red  apple  par  excellence  of  Washing- 
ton and  Oregon.  Has  not  come  into  prominence  outside  of  those 
states. 

Gano.  —  An  improved  Ben  Davis,  and  is  largely  replacing  that 
variety.  Tree  moderately  vigorous,  upright,  spreading,  some- 
what inclined  to  droop.  Fruit  large,  form  roundish,  conic,  uni- 
form in  size  and  shape;  flesh  whitish,  tinged  with  yellow,  firm, 
juicy,  mild  subacid,  nearly  good  in  quality.  Season  extending 
from  December  to  May. 


236  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

Grimes.  —  Tree  moderately  vigorous,  upright,  spreading,  in- 
clined to  droop.  Fruit  medium  to  large;  form  roundish  oblong, 
flattened  at  the  ends;  skin  tough,  clear,  deep  yellow;  flesh  yellow, 
very  firm,  tender,  crisp,  juicy,  subacid,  rich  aromatic,  very  good 
to. best.  Season  November  to  February.  This  variety  has  been 
rated  as  the  type  of  excellence  in  apples.  It  is  one  of  the  hand- 
somest yellow  apples,  and  is  proving  to  be  a  reliable  market 
variety. 

Haas.  —  Tree  large,  very  vigorous,  becoming  spreading  or 
roundish  with  age.  Fruit  large;  form  oblate,  somewhat  ribbed; 
skin  thin,  yellow,  washed  and  nearly  covered  with  deep  bright 
red  with  splashes  of  carmine;  flesh  white,  often  stained  with  red, 
firm,  juicy,  subacid,  fair  in  quality.  Season  October  to  early 
winter. 

Jonathan.  —  Tree  medium  in  size,  moderately  vigorous,  roundish, 
somewhat  spreading  and  drooping  with  age.  Fruit  medium  to 
large  (should  average  large  with  good  culture),  roundish  conic, 
uniform  in  shape;  skin  thin,  tough,  bright  yellow,  usually  over- 
laid with  lively  dark  red  which  usually  deepens  to  purplish  on 
the  sunny  side;  flesh  whitish  to  yellow  sometimes  tinged  with 
red,  firm,  crisp,  juicy,  aromatic,  sprightly,  subacid,  very  good  to 
best.  Season  November  to  January.  This  is  one  of  the  best  com- 
mercial apples.  Tree  usually  does  best  when  top-worked  on  a 
more  vigorous  growing  kind.  This  variety  is  also  very  susceptible 
to  arsenical  poisoning. 

Mclntosh.  —  Tree  vigorous,  roundish,  somewhat  spreading. 
Fruit  large,  roundish  oblate,  slightly  ribbed;  skin  thin,  tender, 
light  yellow,  mostly  covered  with  bright  red  and  striped  with 
carmine;  flesh  white,  sometimes  veined  with  red,  firm,  crisp, 
tender,  very  juicy,  sprightly  subacid,  aromatic,  very  good  to 
best,  especially  for  dessert.  Season  October  to  December,  or 
later  in  storage.  Succeeds  especially  well  in  the  valleys  of  Mon- 
tana. Many  specimens  become  dark  red  in  this  climate;  thin 
lilac  bloom. 

Missouri  (Pippin}.  —  Tree  only  moderately  vigorous,  with  long, 
slender,  drooping  branches.  Fruit  medium  in  size,  roundish;  skin 
thick,  tough,  glossy,  pale  greenish  overspread  with  bright  red 


Varieties  237 

and  striped  with  purplish  red;  flesh  tinged  with  yellow,  firm,  not 
very  juicy,  subacid,  fair  to  good  in  quality.  Season  October  to 
January  or  later.  Highly  colored  specimens  are  nearly  solid  red. 

Oldenburg  (Duchess  of  Oldenburg).  —  Tree  medium  in  size, 
roundish.  Fruit  large,  uniform,  roundish  oblate;  skin  thick,  ten- 
der, greenish  yellow,  almost  covered  with  regular  splashes  and 
stripes  of  bright  red  mottled  and  shaded  with  crimson;  flesh 
tinged  with  yellow,  rather  firm,  crisp,  tender,  juicy,  sprightly  sub- 
acid,  aromatic,  very  good  for  culinary  purposes.  Season  late 
August  and  September. 

Plumb  Cider.  —  Tree  fairly  vigorous,  medium,  upright.  Fruit 
medium  to  large,  roundish,  slightly  conic;  skin  yellowish,  shaded 
with  pale  red  and  striped  with  brighter  red;  flesh  yellow,  firm, 
fine,  juicy,  subacid,  good.  Season  October  to  January. 

Rome  (Beauty").  —  Tree  fairly  vigorous,  but  makes  poor  growth 
when  young,  upright.  Fruit  large  to  very  large,  uniform  in  shape, 
roundish,  oblate,  somewhat  conic,  cylindrical;  skin  thick,  tough, 
yellowish  or  greenish,  and  in  well-colored  specimens  should  be 
almost  solid  red  on  the  exposed  side;  flesh  nearly  white,  firm, 
crisp,  juicy,  mild  subacid,  quality  good.  Season  November  to 
April  or  May.  Should  be  top-worked  on  a  vigorous-growing  kind 
for  best  results.  Blooms  late,  and  so  often  escapes  frost. 

Utter.  —  Tree  vigorous,  roundish  to  upright,  healthy,  hardy. 
Fruit  medium  to  large,  roundish  oblate;  skin  orange-red  and 
streaked  with  bright  carmine;  flesh  whitish,  tinged  with  yellow, 
somewhat  coarse,  crisp,  tender,  juicy,  mild  subacid,  good.  Season 
October  to  December.  Some  fruits  show  little  or  no  red,  but  on 
highly  colored  specimens  the  prevailing  color  is  red. 

Wealthy.  —  Tree  of  medium  size,  moderately  vigorous,  with 
curving  branches,  spreading  and  somewhat  open.  Fruit  medium 
to  large,  roundish  conic,  slightly  flattened  at  the  base;  skin  thin, 
tough,  pale  yellow,  blushed  and  marked  with  narrow  stripes  and 
splashes  of  red  deepening  in  highly  colored  specimens  to  nearly 
solid  red;  flesh  whitish,  sometimes  stained  with  red,  crisp,  tender, 
very  juicy,  subacid,  sprightly,  good  to  very  good.  Season 
October  to  January. 

White  Pearmain.  —  Tree  vigorous,  spreading.     Fruit  medium 


238  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

to  large,  roundish  ovate  to  conic,  somewhat  ribbed;  skin  tough, 
slightly  waxy,  pale  yellow  with  a  decided  blush  if  well  grown; 
flesh  slightly  tinged  with  yellow,  firm,  fine-grained,  crisp,  tender, 
juicy,  mild  subacid,  aromatic,  very  good  to  best.  Season  Decem- 
ber to  March.  It  does  not  attain  such  quality  on  the  heavier  or 
poorer  soils. 

Winesap.  —  Tree  medium  in  size,  spreading,  straggling,  and 
inclined  to  droop.  Fruit  medium  in  size,  regular,  roundish, 
slightly  conic;  skin  tough,  glossy,  bright  deep  red  over  a  distinctly 
yellow  ground  color;  flesh  tinged  with  yellow,  veins  sometimes 
red,  firm,  crisp,  very  juicy,  slightly  subacid,  good  to  very  good. 
Season  December  to  May.  Usually  does  best  when  top-worked 
on  a  stronger  growing  kind. 

Winter  Banana.  —  Tree  medium  in  size,  spreading,  somewhat 
inclined  to  droop.  Fruit  large,  form  roundish  conic,  somewhat 
ribbed;  skin  smooth,  tough,  waxy,  bright  pale  yellow,  thin,  and 
when  at  its  best  has  a  dark  pinkish  red  blush;  flesh  tinged  with 
yellow,  moderately  firm,  crisp,  tender,  juicy,  mild  subacid,  aro- 
matic, good  to  very  good.  Season  November  to  February.  This 
variety  was  introduced  in  1890,  and  its  place  as  a  market  fruit 
has  not  yet  been  determined.  However,  its  susceptibility  to 
blight  will  probably  prevent  its  being  planted  extensively. 

Yellow  Newtown  (Pippin).  —  Tree  vigorous,  roundish  upright. 
Fruit  large,  roundish  oblate,  somewhat  ribbed;  skin  rather  tough, 
bright  yellow,  with  a  distinct  blush;  flesh  yellowish,  firm,  crisp, 
tender,  juicy,  sprightly  subacid,  aromatic;  quality  best.  Season 
February  to  May  or  later  in  cold  storage.  This  variety  is  very 
susceptible  to  soil  conditions,  and  thus  far  it  has  found  congenial 
surroundings  only  in  the  Cascade  regions  in  the  states  of  Oregon 
and  Washington.  The  Green  Newtown  differs  from  the  Yellow 
principally  in  color. 

Apricots 

The  apricots  are  not  quite  so  adaptable  to  soils  as  are 
the  peaches.  They  do  best  on  rich  red  land.  Just  why  so 
excellent  a  fruit  and  ripening  so  early  in  the  season  should 


Varieties  239 

not  have  a  greater  demand  is  difficult  to  explain.  How- 
ever, there  is  a  growing  demand,  and  plantings  are  being 
increased. 

Early  Montgamet.  —  Tree  vigorous,  spreading,  and  needs  severe 
pruning,  hardy  and  very  productive.  Fruit  large;  skin  orange- 
yellow,  reddened  on  sunny  side;  flesh  pale  salmon  color;  quality 
fair;  freestone.  Season  just  after  New  Castle. 

Moorpark.  —  Tree  large  and  vigorous.  Fruit  large,  uniform, 
nearly  round;  skin  orange  color  with  a  deep  orange -red  cheek; 
flesh  bright  yellowish  orange  color,  firm,  juicy,  with  a  rich,  high 
flavor;  quality  good;  freestone.  Season  August  1  at  Palisade, 
Colorado:  the  same  at  Nampa,  Idaho.  Has  proved  to  be  a  shy 
bearer  and  to  ripen  unevenly  in  some  localities. 

New  Castle.  —  Tree  upright,  vigorous.  Fruit  medium  size, 
roundish;  skin  rich  golden  yellow,  with  bright  red  cheek;  free- 
stone; quality  good.  Season  the  last  week  in  June  at  Palisade, 
Colorado.  Early  July  at  Brigham  City,  Utah. 

Royal.  —  Tree  upright,  moderately  vigorous.  Fruit  of  large 
size,  roundish,  somewhat  compressed;  skin  dull  yellow,  with 
orange  cheek  and  a  faint  blush;  flesh  light  orange  color,  firm  but 
juicy,  vinous  flavor;  quality  good;  freestone.  Season  of  Alex- 
ander peach,  about  August  20.  One  of  the  leading  varieties  for 
canning  and  drying. 

Cherries 

As  has  been  mentioned,  the  Esopus  (Spitzenburg)  and 
the  Newtown  apples  find  congenial  conditions  in  the  Cas- 
cade Mountains.  The  same  is  true  of  cherries.  In  fact, 
we  know  of  no  place  where  this  fruit  reaches  the  degree  of 
perfection  that  it  does  in  the  valleys  of  Oregon  and  Wash- 
ington (Fig.  78).  It  does  not  appear  at  present  that  any 
locality  in  the  inter-mountain  country  can  hope  to  produce 
cherries  equaling  those  that  are  grown  in  these  two  states 
where  the  atmosphere  is  uniformly  much  more  humid. 


240  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

However,  this  does  not  mean  that  cherries  cannot  be 
produced  at  a  profit  outside  of  those  localities.  The  fact 
is  that  this  crop  is  growing  in  importance  in  most  localities, 
and  plantings  are  being  rapidly  extended. 

Of  all  fruits  the  cherry  must  have  a  dry  soil.  It  thrives 
best  in  rich  loamy  land.  When  irrigating  the  cherry 
orchard,  the  rule  should  be  to  give  it  only  enough  water  to 
keep  the  trees  in  good  condition,  and  no  more.  The  sweet 
cherries  are  nearly  as  susceptible  to  cold  as  the  peach, 
while  the  sour  kinds  are  about  as  hardy  as  the  red  plums, 
and  the  intending  planter  should  select  his  varieties 
accordingly. 

The  large  sweet  varieties,  as  the  Lewelling  and  the 
Napoleon,  have  done  best  in  the  higher  altitudes.  This 
is  probably  due  to  the  greater  annual  precipitation  and 
the  porous,  well-drained  soil  commonly  occurring  in  such 
localities. 

•  The  sweet  cherries  have  the  reputation  of  being  diffi- 
cult to  transplant,  and  many  persons  have  experienced 
difficulty  in  securing  a  good  stand.  Two  factors  enter 
into  this  difficulty,  the  more  important  one  being  that  if 
the  buds  have  started  before  the  trees  are  planted,  it  is  al- 
most impossible  to  make  the  trees  live.  Since  our  nursery 
stock  is  mostly  shipped  in  from  other  states,  it  is  not  to  be 
wondered  at  that  the  buds  swell  to  a  certain  extent  before 
the  trees  can  be  planted.  The  second  point  to  be  con- 
sidered in  planting  cherry  trees  is  that  they  do  not  re- 
quire, and  will  not  withstand,  as  much  water  as  many 
other  fruits.  We  think  that  these  two  factors  will  account 
for  many  of  the  failures  in  securing  a  good  stand  of  cherry 
trees. 


Varieties  241 

Cherries  are  divided  into  two  distinct  groups,  the  tall, 
upright-growing  kinds,  bearing  sweet  and  more  or  less 
heart-shaped  fruit;  and  the  smaller  round-headed  trees, 
bearing  round,  sour  cherries. 

The  sweet  cherries  were  formerly  divided  into  four 
groups  as  follows :  Mazzards,  inferior  seedlings,  very  large 
trees ;  Hearts,  the  soft  sweet  cherries,  either  light-  or  dark- 
colored;  Bigarreaus,  the  firm-fleshed,  sweet  cherries; 
Dukes,  light-colored,  somewhat  acid  flesh,  although  borne 
on  the  upright  class  of  trees.  These  groups  have  now 
become  so  thoroughly  mixed  by  crossing  that  there  is  little 
use  of  trying  to  separate  the  varieties  into  the  various 
classes. 

The  sour  cherries  were  also  separated  into  two  classes, 
the  Amarelles  and  the  Morellos. 

We  have  selected  only  a  few  of  the  many  varieties  for 
description,  —  those  that  at  present  are  the  more  profit- 
able market  kinds;  and  the  descriptions  follow. 

Levelling  (Black  Republican").  —  Tree  moderately  vigorous  for 
the  class.  Fruit  large,  shining  black;  flesh  solid  and  firm;  quality 
good.  One  of  the  best,  for  long-distance  shipments.  Season  late. 

Napoleon  (Royal  Ann).  —  Tree  vigorous.  Fruit  large,  heart- 
shaped,  pale  yellow  with  bright  red  cheek;  flesh  very  firm,  juicy, 
sweet.  One  of  the  best  market  varieties  when  well  grown,  as 
well  as  the  leading  sw.eet  cherry,  for  canning.  Season  June  20 
at  Grand  Junction,  Colorado,  also  at  Brigham  City,  Utah;  July  1 
at  Xampa,  Idaho. 

Royal  Duke.  —  Tree  upright,  vigorous.  Fruit  very  large, 
roundish;  skin  dark  red;  flesh  reddish,  tender,  juicy;  quality 
good.  Season  medium  early. 

Windsor.  —  Tree  vigorous,  hardy,  and  prolific;  fruit  of  good 
size,  but  not  as  large  as  Lewelling,  heart-shaped;  skin  very  dark 
red;  flesh  very  firm  and  of  good  quality.  Season  about  the  same 


242  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

as  Napoleon.     Will  withstand  frost  and  neglect  better  than  most 
cherries. 

Sixteen  to  One.  —  A  hardy  sweet  cherry,  and  peculiar  because 
it  ripens  its  fruit  over  a  long  period.  It  is  being  planted  to  some 
extent  as  a  market  variety,  but  we  think  that  it  will  prove  to  be 
an  amateur  fruit  only.  Originated  on  the  farm  of  E.  J.  Mathews 
at  Paonia,  Colorado,  as  a  chance  seedling. 

Bing  and  Lambert  are  two  of  the  newer  dark  red,  sweet  cherries 
that  are  being  extensively  planted  in  the  Northwest.  Both 
varieties  are  very  large,  and  excellent  for  market  as  grown  in  the 
coast  states.  Both  varieties  are  being  planted  in  the  inter- 
mountain  country  proper,  but  it  will  be  several  years  before  we 
will  know  whether  they  will  be  adapted  to  our  conditions. 

Montmorency  Ordinaire  is  perhaps  the  best  sour  cherry.  The 
tree  is  vigorous,  hardy,  and  productive.  Fruit  of  good  size,  firm; 
skin  and  flesh  light  red,  with  light-colored  juice,  less  tart  than 
most  sour  kinds  and  makes  a  good  appearance  when  canned; 
quality  good.  Distinctly  a  canner's  cherry  and  an  excellent 
market  variety.  Season  late  June  and  early  July  on  the  western 
slope  of  Colorado,  the  Cache  Valley,  Utah,  and  at  Nampa,  Idaho; 
July  10  to  15  in  the  colder  districts  where  sweet  cherries  do  not 
succeed. 

English  Morello.  —  This  variety  has  been  more  extensively 
planted  than  any  other  sour  cherry,  but  we  think  that  the  Mont- 
morency will  largely  take  its  place  in  the  future.  Tree  smaller 
than  Montmorency,  productive.  Fruit  of  good  size,  very  dark 
red  and  very  acid.  Season,  middle  of  July  to  August  1  on  the 
western  slope  of  Colorado;  somewhat  earlier  at  Brigham  City, 
Utah;  July  15  to  20  at  Nampa,  Idaho;  August  1  in  the  colder 
districts. 

Peaches 

Peaches  are  nearly  as  indifferent  to  soil  conditions  as  is 
the  Ben  Davis  apple.  To  be  sure,  they  respond  to  good 
land,  but  the  productiveness  and  the  quality  of  the  fruit 
seem  to  be  about  the  same  in  any  soil  where  the  trees  are 
in  a  vigorous,  healthy  condition.  This  is  assuming,  of 


Varieties  243 

course,  that  the  relative  susceptibility  to  late  spring  frosts 
of  different  locations  is  not  taken  into  account. 

As  with  other  fruits,  but  few  varieties  should  be  grown 
for  market.  The  one  variety  for  this  purpose,  above  all 
others,  in  this  section,  is  the  Elberta.  The  reasons  for  the 
Elberta's  supremacy  as  a  market  peach  are:  that  it  en- 
dures long  shipments  well;  it  is  of  large  size  and  handsome 
in  appearance;  and  its  season  is  when  there  is  the  least 
competition  from  other  states. 

A  comparatively  few  early  and  a  few  late  varieties  are 
grown  to  extend  the  season,  and  there  is  also  sale  at  high 
prices  for  a  limited  amount  of  the  very  early  and  for  the 
very  late  kinds.  The  planter,  however,  should  be  sure  of 
the  season  of  his  locality  before  planting  the  later  kinds. 

Champion.  —  Tree  vigorous,  spreading.  Fruit  medium  to 
large,  roundish;  skin  white,  with  a  deep  red  blush;  flesh  white, 
firm,  juicy;  quality  good;  freestone.  Season  just  before  Elberta. 

Elberta.  —  Tree  strong,  vigorous  grower,  tree  inclined  to  thin 
the  fruit  itself;  foliage  dark  green.  Fruit  large,  roundish  oval, 
with  a  well-marked  suture;  skin  lemon-yellow,  with  a  blush  on 
the  sunny  side;  flesh  pale  yellow,  tender,  juicy;  quality  good. 
A  good  shipper  and  can  be  gathered  before  it  is  fully  ripe.  Season 
medium  late;  September  25  at  Palisade,  Colorado;  September  5 
at  Brigham  City,  Utah;  last  of  August  at  Nampa,  Idaho. 

Globe.  —  Tree  vigorous  and  symmetrical.  Fruit  very  large, 
globular;  skin  lemon-yellow,  with  a  mottled  red  cheek;  flesh 
yellow,  deep  red  at  the  pit;  quality  good,  rich,  and  juicy;  free- 
stone. Season  ten  days  later  than  Elberta  or  about  October  5  at 
Palisade,  Colorado,  somewhat  earlier  at  Brigham  City,  Utah. 

Orange  Cling.  —  Tree  vigorous,  tall,  somewhat  spreading. 
Fruit  large,  nearly  round;  skin  orange-yellow,  with  red  cheek; 
flesh  yellow,  firm,  juicy,  rich;  quality  very  good;  clingstone. 
Season  about  with  Globe  or  a  few  days  later. 

Triumph.  —  Tree    strong    grower,    medium    spreading,    buds 


244  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

hardy  during  severe  winter.  Fruit  large,  round;  skin  yellow,  well 
overlaid  with  red  where  exposed;  flesh  deep  yellow,  juicy,  good, 
semi-cling.  Season  August  10  at  Palisade,  Colorado;  August  5 
at  Brigham  City,  Utah;  the  same  at  Nampa,  Idaho.  The  best 
early,  yellow-fleshed  variety  for  this  section. 

Pears 

The  pear  is  the  one  tree-fruit  of  the  inter-mountain 
country  of  which  it  is  depressing  to  write,  because  of  the 
devastations  of  the  fire-blight.  Ten  years  ago  the  planting 
of  pears  was  being  extended  rapidly,  but  about  that  time 
blight  appeared,  and  a  large  number  of  acres  of  pear  trees 
were  destroyed  in  the  succeeding  four  years.  In  some 
localities  where  there  were  formerly  hundreds  of  acres  of 
fine  orchards,  almost  none  are  standing  to-day.  Only  one 
locality  remains,  in  Colorado,  —  the  country  tributary  to 
Grand  Junction,  —  where  pear-growing  is  still  profitable. 
And  even  here  blight  is  doing  great  damage  every  year,  so 
it  would  seem  to  be  only  a  question  of  time  when  these 
famous  orchards  will  be  things  of  the  past.  This  experi- 
ence has  been  common  to  most  of  the  older  fruit-growing 
sections  of  the  inter-mountain  states. 

In  the  light  of  such  experience  the  writers  cannot  en- 
courage the  planting  of  pear  orchards.  And  when  we  con- 
sider the  menace  that  even  one  blighted  pear  tree  is  to 
large  areas  of  apple  orchards,  we  cannot  but  think  that  the 
interest  of  a  very  large  percentage  of  our  fruit-growers 
would  be  best  served  if  no  pear  trees  were  grown. 

Aside  from  the  question  of  blight  the  pear  is  one  of  the 
easiest  fruits  to  grow.  It  thrives  in  a  great  variety  of  soils, 
if  fertility  is  not  lacking,  but  perhaps  does  best  in  a  mod- 
erately heavy  soil. 


Varieties  246 

Anjou.  —  Tree  vigorous,  upright,  productive.  Fruit  large, 
obtuse  pyriform;  stem  short,  fleshy,  set  in  a  russeted  cavity; 
skin  greenish  yellow,  sprinkled  with  russet,  dull  red  blush;  flesh 
whitish,  buttery,  juicy  with  a  rich  vinous  flavor;  quality  good. 
Season  about  September  15  at  Grand  Junction,  Colorado;  the 
same  at  Brigham  City,  Utah,  and  at  Nampa,  Idaho.  Will  often 
keep  until  the  holidays.  Liable  to  be  a  shy  bearer  unless  severely 
pruned. 

Bartlett.  —  Tree  vigorous,  erect.  Fruit  large,  obtuse  pyriform; 
stem  long,  stout,  cavity  shallow;  skin  clear,  yellow,  often  with 
reddish  blush;  flesh  whitish,  fine-grained,  tender,  and  buttery; 
fine  flavor;  quality  good.  Season  about  August  25  at  Grand 
Junction,  Colorado.  A  few  days  earlier  at  Brigham  City,  Utah; 
September  1  at  Nampa,  Idaho.  One  of  the  best  market  pears, 
but  very  susceptible  to  blight. 

Lawrence.  —  Tree  moderate  grower,  upright.  Fruit  medium 
size,  pyriform;  stalk  short,  set  in  shallow  basin;  skin  light  yellow, 
with  many  small  dots;  flesh  whitish,  buttery,  aromatic;  quality 
good.  Season  about  September  15  at  Grand  Junction,  Colorado, 
at  Brigham  City,  Utah,  and  at  Nampa,  Idaho;  will  keep  until 
December. 

Mount  Vernon.  —  Tree  upright  and  vigorous.  Fruit  medium 
in  size,  obovate,  irregular;  stalk  short,  but  slightly  sunken;  skin 
dull  russet,  with  a  red  cheek;  flesh  greenish  white,  a  little  coarse, 
rich,  vinous;  quality  good.  Season,  October  4  at  Grand  Junc- 
tion, Colorado;  the  latter  part  of  September  at  Brigham  City, 
Utah;  October  25  at  Nampa,  Idaho. 

Seckel.  —  Tree  rather  a  slow  grower,  but  vigorous,  upright. 
Fruit  small,  obovate;  stalk  short,  cavity  small;  skin  brownish 
green,  turning  to  yellowish  brown,  with  russet-red  cheek;  flesh 
whitish,  fine-grained,  melting,  rich,  sweet;  quality  very  good. 
Resists  blight  better  than  most  varieties  and  sells  fairly  well  in 
half  boxes.  Season  September  1  at  Grand  Junction,  Colorado; 
latter  part  of  August  at  Brigham  City,  Utah,  and  at  Nampa, 
Idaho. 

Winter  Nelis.  —  Tree  rather  straggling,  with  slender  branches. 
Fruit  medium  size;  stalk  moderately  long,  usually  bent;  cavity 


246 


Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 


narrow;  skin  yellowish  green,  much  russeted;  flesh  yellowish, 
fine-grained,  buttery,  sweet;  quality  good.  It  is  picked  just 
before  frost  and  will  keep  until  December. 


FIG.  64.  —  An  Idaho  Prune  Orchard.     Boise,  Idaho. 

Plums 

Plums  do  well  on  a  variety  of  soils,  but  thrive  best  when 
planted  on  land  of  good  tilth  and  of  a  fair  degree  of  fer- 
tility. For  the  sake  of  convenience  we  may  make  two 


Varieties  247 

classes  of  plums;  those  adapted  to  conditions  in  which 
peaches  thrive,  and  those  that  must  withstand  a  more 
rigorous  climate.  Of  the  former  class  numbers  of  varie- 
ties may  be  grown  successfully,  but  a  few  varieties  grown  in 
quantity  are  always  better  than  many,  so  that  only  a  few 
of  the  best  ones  will  be  considered. 

Plums  have  not  been  very  profitable  for  long-distance 
shipments,  and  the  making  of  prunes  has  not  become  an 
important  industry  throughout  the  inter-mountain  region. 
Localities  in  Western  Idaho  have  been  producing  prunes 
for  a  number  of  years,  and  large  orchards  have  been  planted 
(Fig.  64).  Oregon  and  Washington  also  produce  many 
prunes,  but  these  states  are  hardly  to  be  considered 
within  our  range.  Prunes  of  excellent  quality  can  be 
produced  in  any  locality  in  the  region  where  peaches 
mature,  but  it  is  generally  held  that  other  lines  of 
orcharding  pay  better,  and  there  is  certainly  less  danger 
of  overproduction. 

Abundance.  —  Tree  upright,  vigorous,  a  prolific  bearer.  Fruit 
large,  oblong,  tapering  to  a  point;  stem  rather  short,  suture 
shallow;  skin  yellow,  but  mostly  overlaid  with  bright  red;  quality 
good.  Season  early.  A  Japanese  variety;  blossoms  early  in  com- 
mon with  its  class,  and  is  therefore  especially  liable  to  injury  by 
late  spring  frosts. 

Bradshaw.  —  Tree  vigorous  and  attains  large  size.  Fruit  large, 
obovate,  cavity  shallow,  usually  with  a  ring  about  the  stem; 
stem  about  an  inch  long;  suture  shallow;  color  dark  purplish 
red,  with  blue  bloom;  flesh  greenish  yellow;  stone  rather  small, 
nearly  free;  sweet,  quality  good.  Season  September  1  at  Delta, 
Colorado;  August  20  at  Brigham  City,  Utah;  September  10  at 
Nampa,  Idaho. 

Italian  Prune  (Fellenberg}.  —  Tree  moderately  vigorous,  spread- 
ing. Fruit  of  decided  prune-shape,  medium  to  large  in  size;  color 


248  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

dark  blue  with  blue  bloom;  flesh  greenish  yellow;  freestone; 
quality  very  good,  sweet.  Season  about  with  Elberta  peach. 

Tragedy  Prune.  —  Tree  moderately  vigorous,  upright.  Fruit 
medium  size,  prune-shaped,  suture  deep;  stem  short;  skin  dark 
purple  with  blue  bloom;  flesh  firm,  yellow;  stone  large,  cling; 
quality  good.  Season  early.  This  variety  is  being  planted,  to 
some  extent,  on  account  of  its  early  ripening,  its  season  at  Grand 
Junction  being  the  latter  part  of  June. 

Satsuma.  —  Tree  upright.  Fruit  large;  round  conical,  cavity 
deep  and  abrupt;  stem  short  and  stout;  suture  nearly  obsolete; 
color  dark,  bright  red,  with  light  bloom;  flesh  dark  red,  firm; 
cling;  flavor  rather  acid,  good.  Season  medium  to  late.  Must 
be  planted  with  other  varieties  which  blossom  at  the  same  time 
in  order  to  insure  uniform  crops  of  fruit.  Not  as  hardy  as  some 
other  Japanese  kinds. 

The  second  class  is  composed  almost  wholly  of  the  culti- 
vated varieties  of  the  native  red  plums,  with  a  very  few 
of  the  hardier  Domesticas.  The  red  plums  have  been 
profitable  in  the  colder  districts,  where  they  usually  find 
ready  sale  in  near-by  markets.  When  consumers  are  able 
to  overcome  their  prejudices  and  become  accustomed  to 
these  fruits,  they  find  that  the  better  red  plums  are  su- 
perior in  flavor,  and  that  they  are  especially  adapted  to  the 
making  of  preserves,  jellies,  and  marmalades. 

American  Eagle.  —  Tree  a  good  grower  for  the  class,  produc- 
tive. Fruit  large,  oval;  suture  a  faint  line;  stem  medium;  cavity 
abrupt;  color  yellow,  mostly  overlaid  with  dark  crimson,  with 
thick  blue  bloom;  flesh  firm,  yellow;  stone  large,  cling;  quality 
good.  Season  medium. 

De  Soto.  —  Tree  not  very  vigorous  and  inclined  to  overbear. 
Fruit  medium  in  size,  oval;  suture  a  line;  stem  rather  long;  color 
orange,  mostly  overlaid  with  crimson;  bloom  blue;  flesh  yellow, 
firm;  stone  oval,  cling;  quality  very  good.  Season  medium. 

Forest  Garden.  —  Tree  a  good  grower  for  the  class,  productive. 


Varieties  249 

Fruit  large,  nearly  round,  suture  obscure;  cavity  shallow;  color 
orange,  mostly  overlaid  with  dark  red;  bloom  thin,  blue;  flesh 
yellow,  sometimes  red  around  the  stone;  stone  roundish,  cling; 
quality  very  good.  Season  medium. 

Wolf.  —  Tree  vigorous,  productive.  Fruit  oval,  medium  to 
large,  suture  a  faint  line,  color  orange  overlaid  with  crimson; 
bloom  bluish;  skin  tough;  flesh  yellow;  freestone;  quality  good. 
Season  medium  early. 

Arctic  (Moor).  —  Tree  vigorous,  somewhat  spreading.  Fruit 
medium  or  below  in  size,  roundish,  suture  indistinct;  stem  short, 
slender;  color  nearly  black,  with  a  thin  blue  bloom;  flesh  tender, 
firm,  nearly  sweet,  yellowish;  freestone.  Season  medium.  One 
of  the  hardiest  of  the  blue  plums,  but  is  distinctly  inferior  in  quality 
to  the  American  plums  just  described. 


CHAPTER  XVI 

PICKING   THE  FRUIT 

f  THE  subject  of  picking  and  packing  fruit  is  one  of  vital 
importance  to  the  western  fruit-grower,  who  depends  to  a 
large  extent  on  the  demands  of  the  eastern  market.  The 
inter-mountain  states,  which  embrace  some  of  the  best 
fancy  fruit-growing  sections  of  the  world,  do  not,  by  any 
means,  contain  the  most  desirable  markets.  The  western 
markets  are  new,  and  the  consumer  has  not  been  educated 
to  pay  fancy  prices  for  fancy  fruit.  Not  only  this,  but  the 
western  markets  are  no  longer  able  to  consume  the  western- 
grown  fruit.  The  grower  must  study  the  demands  of  the 
distant  markets,  and,  so  long  as  the  requirements  can  be 
met  with  justice  to  the  profit  side  of  his  ledger,  he  will 
do  well  to  cater  to  their  demands.  Even  the  experienced 
fruit-grower,  thus  isolated  from  his  markets,  to  say  nothing 
of  the  large  class  of  inexperienced  growers,  might  profit  by 
the  writers'  efforts  in  this  chapter  on  the  picking  and  the 
packing  of  fruit.  It  is  hoped  that  a  general  discussion  of 
these  subjects  will  help  the  grower  to  market  his  fruit  more 
intelligently,  and,  to  a  certain  extent,  aid  him  to  grasp 
the  meaning  of  the  stock  phrases  of  the  wholesaler  so  often 
accompanying  unsatisfactory  returns. 

The  terms  "pack  poor,"  "poor   grade,"  and  "fruit  in 
poor  condition/'  so  often  used  by  the  buyer,  often  mean 

250 


Picking  the  Fruit  251 

little  to  the  grower  after  the  fruit  is  out  of  his  sight.  He 
knows  that  the  fruit  was  not  satisfactory  to  the  buyer, 
but  he  is  often  at  a  loss  to  know  how  to  improve  his 
methods  of  marketing.  While  the  fruit-grower  need  not 
be  alarmed  over  our  present  methods,  we  feel  sure  that  im- 
provements in  methods  of  picking,  packing,  and  market- 
ing will  have  to  keep  pace  with  the  rapidly  increasing 
acreage  of  bearing  orchards.  Otherwise  the  net  returns 
will  gradually  diminish  until  large  profits,  which  are  now 
the  great  stimulus  to  fruit-growing,  will  no  longer  recom- 
mend it  to  the  man  in  search  of  a  vocation.  When  asked 
whether  there  is  any  danger  of  overproduction  of  fancy 
fruit,  we  feel  safe  in  answering  in  the  negative,  but  always 
qualify  the  statement  by  suggesting  that  we  may  be 
obliged  to  grow  better  fruit.  There  will  always  be  a  market 
for  the  best  fruit,  and  there  will  always  be  a  best  way  to 
pick  and  to  pack  it. 

Picking  the  Fruit 

Possibly  the  grower  of  fancy  fruit  in  the  arid  fruit  sec- 
tions does  not  fully  realize  that  much  of  his  fruit  is  held 
in  cold-storage  during  the  early  part  of  the  season,  and 
that  the  high  price  which  he  receives,  as  compared  with 
prices  paid  for  fruit  in  other  sections,  is  due  partly  to  its 
superiority  as  a  cold-storage  product.  It  is  to  the  grower's 
advantage,  then,  to  see  that  the  fruit  goes  into  storage  in 
the  best  possible  condition.  This  means  that  the  fruit 
must  be  picked  in  the  proper  condition,  handled  carefully, 
and  stored  promptly. 

The  fruit-grower  must  realize  that  the  fruit  is  a  living 
organism  that  reaches  the  end  of  its  life  and  dies  of  old 


252  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

age.  The  life  processes  are  proceeding  continually,  but 
more  slowly  in  cool  temperatures  than  at  higher  ones.  It 
is  the  purpose  of  the  cold-storage  house  to  check  the  ripen- 
ing processes  in  the  minimum  temperatures  that  will  not 
injure  the  fruit,  and  in  this  way  prolong  its  life.  The 
cooler  temperature  also  checks  the  spread  of  fungi,  that 
may  kill  the  fruit  prematurely.  The  ripening  processes 
may  then  be  considered  little  more  than  decay,  and  the 
fruit  should  be  handled  in  a  way  to  delay  this  decomposi- 
tion as  long  as  possible. 

The  fruit  must  not  be  allowed  to  become  overripe  upon 
the  tree.  It  should  be  picked  just  as  it  reaches  the  height 
of  its  life  development  and  before  it  begins  to  decline. 
Pears  allowed  to  hang  on  the  trees  too  long  soften  at  the 
core  and  soon  rot  in  storage.  The  Jonathan  apple  oc- 
casionally rots  at  the  core  in  storage,  and  it  is  generally 
conceded  that  allowing  the  fruit  to  hang  on  the  tree  too 
long  is  the  cause  of  the  trouble.  The  Jonathan  and  some 
other  varieties  crack  at  the  calyx  end  when  picking  is  de- 
layed, and  this  also  gives  entrance  for  molds  in  storage. 
Under  normal  conditions  the  ripening  processes  proceed 
much  faster  after  the  fruit  is  picked  from  the  tree,  and 
every  effort  should  be  made  to  check  it  by  storing  the  fruit 
in  a  cool  place  or  promptly  delivering  it  to  the  buyer. 

The  following  statements  from  a  recent  bulletin  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  emphasize  the 
importance  of  storing  promptly :  — 

" Rhode  Island  (Greening),  Tompkins  King,  and  Sutton 
apples  picked  September  15,  1902,  and  stored  within  three 
days,  were  firm  till  the  following  March,  with  no  rot  or  scald, 
but  fruit  from  the  same  trees  not  stored  till  two  weeks  after 


Picking  the  Fruit  253 

picking  was  badly  scalded  or  decayed  by  the  first  of  Janu- 
ary. None  of  the  immediately  stored  fruit  was  scalded  or 
decayed  by  the  first  of  February,  but  the  delayed  Sutton 
and  Rhode  Island  (Greening)  apples  were  soft  and  mealy, 
and  one-third  were  scalded  at  that  time,  while  nearly  40 
per  cent  of  the  delayed  Tompkins  King  were  soft  and 
worthless.  The  commercial  value  of  these  varieties  was 
injured  from  40  to  70  per  cent  by  the  delay  in  storage. 

''Apples  of  these  varieties  picked  from  the  same  trees 
on  October  5,  1902,  and  stored  immediately,  and  also 
some  stored  two  weeks  later  were  less  injured  by  the  delay, 
as  the  temperature  and  humidity  were  not  sufficiently  high 
to  cause  rapid  ripening  or  the  development  of  the  fruit 
rots." 

To  keep  satisfactorily  in  cold-storage,  fruit  should  be 
well  colored ; .  in  other  words,  it  should  be  well  matured. 
Poorly  colored  fruit  shows  a  tendency  to  scald  in  storage, 
and  this  explains  why  the  buyer  insists  upon  having  well- 
colored  fruit.  The  color  may  be  improved  by  proper 
pruning,  thinning;  irrigation,  and  tillage  and  by  planting 
varieties  that  ripen  within  the  season.  It  is  possible  to 
secure  a  more  uniformly  matured  and  uniformly  colored 
grade  of  apples  by  picking  over  the  trees  several  times  in- 
stead of  taking  all  the  fruit  at  the  first  gathering.  As  yet, 
many  growers  have  not  reached  this  stage  in  the  growing 
of  fancy  fruit,  but  it  will  no  doubt  come 

While  in  many  of  our  fruit-sections  we  have  not  begun 
to  wrap  the  fancy  apples,  it  has  been  fully  demonstrated 
that  wrapping  prolongs  the  life  of  the  fruit  in  storage.  It 
largely  prevents  the  spread  of  rot  fungi  from  one  fruit  to 
another,  checks  transpiration,  and  saves  the  fruit  from 
many  bruises  in  rough  handling. 


254 


Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 


Picking  Equipment 

The  grower  with  a  large  orchard  knows  that  it  pays  to 
have  good  picking  equipment,  and  he  is  generally  ready 
to  adopt  new  devices  supposed  to  facilitate  his  work. 
The  inventor  has  taken  advantage  of  this  readiness,  and 
has  introduced  many  appliances  supposed  to  reduce  the 


FIG.  65. — The  Bowman  Pick- 
ing Bag. 


FIG.   66.  —  The   Excelsior  Picking 
Receptacle. 


labor  of  picking  to  a  minimum.  In  the  East  we  find  that 
many  kinds  of  fruit-pickers  have  been  devised,  and  most  of 
them  discarded.  The  agent  with  the  patent  fruit-pickers 
has  not  invaded  the  western  fruit  countries.  The  only 
three  essentials  in  picking  fruit  are:  a  careful  man,  a 
good  picking  receptacle,  and  a  good  ladder.  Other 
appliances  may  be  indulged  as  a  luxury,  but  are  gen- 


Picking  the  Fruit 


255 


erally  discarded  as  impracticable  in  commercial  opera- 
tions. 

Unfortunately,  good  pickers  are  not  always  to  be  had, 
and  here  the  grower  with  the  large  orchard  is  at  a  disad- 
vantage. With  a  force  of  pickers 
of  any  size  it  will  pay  the  grower 
to  spend  his  time  overseeing  the 
work.  More  often,  however,  he 
considers  the  packing  house  a  point 
of  more  vital  importance  to  him 
and  hires  a  competent  man  to  look 
after  the  pickers.  With  tree-fruits 
it  is  better  to  pay  the  pickers  by 
the  day  or  hour  in  preference  to 
paying  so  much  per  box.  The  man 
who  is  mean  enough  to  take  advan- 
tage of  his  employer  under  this 
system  would  injure  him  more  if 
allowed  to  pick  by  the  box.  If  one 
is  paying  a  picker  by  the  day,  he 
can  insist  upon  careful  work  being 
done. 

Several  forms  of  picking  recep- 
tacles are  used.  Some  persons  pre- 
fer a  rather  broad  three-gallon  tin 
pail;  some  use  half -bushel  baskets; 
and  others  use  a  special  picking 
bag.  The  bucket  is  very  good  for  picking  soft  fruit  that  is 
easily  bruised,  if  the  picker  is  careful  in  transferring  the 
fruit  to  boxes  for  carrying  it  to  the  packing  house.  Too 
often,  however,  the  picker  is  tempted  to  pour  the  fruit. 


FIG.   67.  —  A  Good  Type 
of  Ladder. 


256  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

Half-bushel  baskets  are  rather  awkward  to  handle,  and 
unless  made  of  sheet  metal,  are  not  very  durable.  The 
bails  of  the  buckets  and  baskets  may  be  supplied  with  a 
heavy  wire  hook,  so  that  the  receptacles  may  be  hung  on  a 
limb,  thus  giving  the  picker  two  free  hands. 


FIG.  68.  — The  Pole  Ladder.  FIG.  69.  — A  Wheel  Ladder. 

The  most  convenient  form  of  a  picking  receptacle  is  one 
of  the  picking  bags,  which  is  supplied  with  straps  to  run 
over  the  shoulders  and  thus  support  the  bag  in  front  of  the 
body.  Two  types  are  commonly  used,  one  a  metal  con- 
trivance with  a  drop-bottom  and  a  canvas  extension  to 


Picking  the  Fruit  257 

facilitate  emptying  without  bruising  the  fruit;  the  other 
a  canvas  bag  open  at  the  bottom,  with  a  snap  to  close  this 
opening  and  a  heavy  wire  ring  to  keep  the  top  distended. 
The  two  types  are  shown  in  Figures  65  and  66. 

Several  types  of  picking  ladders  are  now  in  use.  One  of 
the  most  convenient  forms  is  a  common  step-ladder  with  a 
broad  base,  as  that  shown  in  Figure  67.  The  bro'ad  base 
allows  the  picker  to  lean  to  one  side  without  danger  of  tip- 
ping the  ladder.  It  is  better  to  have  two  lengths  in  ladder 
instead  of  making  all  the  pickers  carry  long  ones.  An- 
other ladder,  rather  handy  for  work  on  the  inside  of  the 
tree,  is  that  shown  in  Figure  68.  With  the  top  placed 
securely  in  a  fork  it  is  a  very  steady  ladder  to  work  on. 
Different  types  of  wheel  ladders  have  been  introduced. 
Figure  69  is  a  common  home-made  form.  This  ladder  is 
rather  heavy  and  cumbersome  to  handle,  and  except  for 
high  cherry  or  pear  trees  it  is  not  to  be  commended.  For- 
tunately, our  fruit-trees  do  not  grow  large,  and  we  are 
learning  to  train  them  in  convenient  forms. 

Picking  Apples 

Many  rules  have  been  laid  down  to  guide  the  fruit- 
grower in  picking  apples.  All  are  more  or  less  correct,  and 
probably  all  fail  to  be  universally  applicable.  Taken  as  a 
whole,  however,  it  should  be  possible  to  give  a  set  of  rules 
that  is  fairly  reliable. 

One  of  the  most  common  rules  is  to  pick  when  the  seeds 
begin  to  turn  brown  about  the  edges.  In  many  cases  this 
is  a  good  rule  to  follow,  but  in  others  it  is  far  from  reliable. 
The  writers  have  observed  cases  in  which  the  seeds  were 
practically  brown  thirty  days  before  the  fruit  was  really 


258  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

ready  to  pick.  This  is  not  a  varietal  characteristic,  either, 
for  we  have  seen  the  standard  winter  varieties  with  the 
seeds  brown  the  first  of  September,  and  many  are  not 
picked  until  the  middle  of  October.  Allowing  the  ground 
to  become  dry  in  midsummer  seems  to  color  the  seeds 
prematurely,  yet  the  fruit  will  improve  in  color  and  size 
when  the  needed  moisture  is  supplied.  Other  conditions 
may  also  have  their  influence  on  the  coloring  of  the  seed. 
Many  of  the  early  varieties  are  picked  before  the  seeds 
show  any  color.  But  in  most  cases  the  color  of  the  seed, 
in  connection  with  other  characters  indicating  maturity, 
is  worthy  of  consideration. 

About  as  much  reliance  can  be  placed  on  the  color  of  the 
fruit  as  any  other  one  character.  Well-colored  fruit  is 
desired  by  the  market,  a  factor  which  must  be  catered  to, 
and,  within  the  bounds  of  reason,  picking  should  be  de- 
layed until  the  required  color  is  attained.  Yet  we  find 
cases  in  which  it  is  out  of  the  question  so  to  delay  the  pick- 
ing; and,  again,  as  the  average  grower  understands  color, 
some  varieties  show  no  colors  that  would  indicate  to  him 
that  the  fruit  is  ready  to  be  picked.  In  waiting  for  color 
one  may  run  the  risk  of  serious  loss  from  wind  or  early 
freezes.  Fruit  matures  better  on  some  soils  than  on  others, 
so  that  color  cannot  be  considered  a  uniform  character. 

The  ease  with  which  the  fruit  separates  from  the  spur 
is  one  factor  that  often  determines  the  season  of  picking. 
One  cannot  afford  to  wait  for  color  in  seeds  or  fruit  after 
the  stem  loses  its  firm  grip  on  the  spur.  The  writers 
have  known  cases  in  which  75  per  cent  of  a  crop  of 
fancy  fruit  has  been  sold  as  wind-falls,  and  merely  because 
the  grower  was  waiting  for  color,  regardless  of  the  con- 


Picking  the  Fruit  259 

dition  of  the  stem.  With  such  varieties  as  the  Fameuse 
(Snow)  and  Mclntosh,  which  have  a  habit  of  dropping 
more  or  less,  we  feel  justified  in  running  some  risk  in  wait- 
ing for  the  fruit  to  color,  even  though  the  dropping  indi- 
cates that  the  fruit  should  be  picked.  With  such  varieties 
as  the  Rails  (Geneton)  and  the  Winesap  it  would  be  folly 
to  wait  for  the  stem  to  loosen,  after  the  fruit  has  attained 
size  and  color. 

Flavor  is  a  character  worth  considering  in  picking  apples, 
as  the  fruit  should  begin  to  have  some  flavor  before  it  is 
harvested.  However,  the  flavor  of  the  apple  improves 
after  picking,  and  allowing  the  apple  to  become  eating 
ripe  on  the  tree  shortens  its  life  in  storage.  The  red  colors 
improve  little  if  any  after  picking,  but  the  yellows  im- 
prove in  storage.  As  an  exception  to  this  statement  it 
may  be  said  that  some  summer  varieties  color  after  pick- 
ing. These  four  indicators  of  maturity  must  be  considered 
together,  and  we  cannot  say  that  any  one  constitutes  a 
safe  rule  to  follow. 

Apples  are  generally  picked  in  canvas  picking  bags,  but 
buckets,  baskets,  and  metal  picking  bags  are  used  to  some 
extent.  The  fruit  should  be  picked  with  the  stems  on. 
The  picker  soon  learns  that  by  a  certain  tilting  motion 
the  stem  may  be  separated  from  the  spur  with  no  damage 
to  either.  In  some  varieties  the  spurs  are  easily  broken, 
so  that  careless  pickers  will  bear  watching.  As  a  rule,  the 
full  crop  is  gathered  at  one  picking,  but  there  are  cases 
when  it  pays  to  make  more  than  one  picking.  WTien  the 
fruit  is  ready  to  harvest,  it  is  generally  gathered  regardless 
of  size,  as  apples  gain  little  in  size  after  they  are  really 
ready  to  be  picked.  The  fruit  should  be  handled  care- 


260  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

fully,  as  bruises  detract  much  from  its  beauty  and  are  often 
the  starting  points  for  decay.  The  fruit  should  be  stored 
in  a  cool  place  as  soon  as  possible  after  picking,  and  kept 
cool  until  delivered  for  shipment. 

Picking  Apricots 

Rules  that  apply  to  picking  peaches  will  apply  equally 
well  to  the  apricot.  The  fruit  is  tender  and  must  be 
handled  carefully.  It  is  even  more  perishable  than  the 
peach,  and  it  must  be  handled  promptly.  Its  color  im- 
proves in  transit  and  storage,  and  fruit  picked  when  the 
color  is  rather  green  often  appears  on  the  market  an 
attractive  yellow. 

Picking  Cherries  » 

Cherries  are  picked  before  they  are  fully  ripe.  The  best 
test  for  fitness  is  the  taste.  Color  should  also  be  a  guide, 
as  the  fruit  should  have  all  the  color  possible  before  pick- 
ing. The  fruit  should  also  be  well  flavored  before  it  is 
picked,  for  it  improves  little  afterwards.  By  testing  a  few 
fruits  one  may  soon  train  the  eye  to  pick  by  color. 

The  fruit  is  picked  with  the  stems  on.  It  may  either 
be  cut  with  shears  or  pulled  by  hand.  If  pulled  by  hand 
one  should  grasp  the  stems  and  not  the  fruit;  the  latter 
method  loosens  the  fruit  from  the  stem  and  the  package 
is  stained  with  juice  and  becomes  unsightly  before  it 
reaches  the  market.  Cherries  are  generally  picked  in 
buckets  or  baskets.  The  fruit  should  not  be  allowed  to 
stand  in  the  sun  after  picking  and  it  should  be  marketed 
promptly. 


Picking  the  Fruit  261 

Picking  Peaches 

Picking  peaches  for  the  distant  market  and  for  the  home 
market  are  two  different  considerations.  In  growing 
peaches  in  a  commercial  way,  it  is  necessary  to  pick  much 
of  the  fruit  before  it  is  ripe,  and  we  must  sacrifice  flavor  if 
we  expect  to  reach  the  distant  market.  It  does  not  im- 
prove much  in  flavor  after  picking.  When  one  knows 
where  the  fruit  is  to  be  marketed,  he  may  pick  accordingly. 
More  often,  however,  the  grower  has  little  idea  where  the 
fruit  is  to  go,  and  must  deliver  it  to  the  shipping  point  in 
condition  to  reach  the  most  distant  market. 

To  a  certain  extent,  color  may  be  considered  an  indica- 
tion of  ripeness  in  peaches,  at  least,  it  first  draws  the 
picker's  attention.  The  fruit  may  or  may  not  show  a 
blush  of  red,  but  the  green  begins  to  lighten  and  traces  of 
yellow  appear  on  shaded  parts.  But  the  peach  that  is  well 
colored  is  not  always  ready  to  be  picked,  and  lack  of  color 
is  not  always  a  sign  of  greenness. 

The  peach  picker  learns  to  go  more  by  touch.  Free- 
stones should  be  picked  as  soon  as  the  fruit  begins  to  feel 
elastic.  One  need  not  bruise  the  fruit  to  determine  this, 
but  simply  clasp  the  fruit  in  the  hand  and  test  it  with 
a  gentle  pressure,  using  the  broad  face  of  the  thumb. 
Picked  in  this  way  there  will  always  be  enough  soft  fruit 
to  supply  the  near-by  markets.  The  clingstones  need  not 
be  picked  so  promptly  after  the  flesh  becomes  elastic 
to  the  touch,  as  they  stand  up  much  better  in  transit  than 
the  freestones  and  do  not  soften  so  quickly.  They  should 
be  left  until  they  attain  very  good  flavor.  In  taking  hold 
of  the  fruit  one  should  be  sure  to  test  the  suture  side  (the 


262  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

flesh  near  the  fold  or  crease  running  from  the  stem  toward 
the  apex).  While  we  have  largely  eliminated  varieties 
that  show  a  decided  tendency  to  soften  first  at  this  point, 
we  still  find  some  specimens  that  do  it.  Specimens  with 
split  pits  generally  soften  at  the  suture  side  first. 

Peaches  must  be  handled  carefully,  as  fruit  bruised  in 
picking  or  packing  will  not  carry  any  great  distance. 
Most  peach-growers  favor  a  rigid  picking  receptacle,  as  a 
bucket  or  a  sheet  metal  picking  bag.  The  metal  picking 
receptacle  shown  in  Figure  66  is  a  very  good  form.  It  is 
furnished  with  a  drop-bottom  and  fruit  may  be  easily 
transferred  to  a  box  without  being  bruised.  Peaches  car- 
ried in  canvas  picking  bags  are  more  or  less  bruised  by 
striking  against  limbs  or  the  ladder,  or  by  being  pressed 
between  the  picker  and  the  limbs  or  the  ladder.  The  fruit, 
should  be  transported  from  the  orchard  to  the  packing 
shed  in  shallow  boxes.  A  very  good  box  for  such  work  is 
that  shown  at  the  base  of  the  tree  in  the  foreground  in 
Figure  70.  Most  growers  use  a  sled  for  short  hauls  and 
a  wagon  with  springs  for  a  longer  haul. 

Picking  Pears 

Most  pears  are  picked  rather  green  and  ripened  in 
storage,  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  give  rules  that  will  guide 
the  inexperienced  grower.  If  pears  are  allowed  to  ripen 
on  the  tree,  or  if  they  are  even  allowed  to  advance  far 
enough  to  show  any  pronounced  indications  of  ripening, 
the  fruit  softens  at  the  core  and  soon  rots  in  transit  or 
in  storage;  and,  unlike  most  other  fruits,  the  pear  ripened 
in  storage  is  of  better  flavor  than  when  allowed  to  mature 
on  the  tree.  Nearly  every  one  not  accustomed  to  hand- 


264  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

ling  pears,  makes  the  mistake  of   delaying  picking  too 
long. 

It  is  a  common  saying,  that  Bartlett  pears  are  ready 
to  pick  as  soon  as  they  are  large  enough,  or  when  over 
2^  inches  in  diameter.  This,  however,  is  not  always 


FIG.  71.  — Pear  on  Right  Ready  to  pick;  the  Other  too  Green. 

a  safe  rule  to  follow,  for  pears  on  young  trees  or  trees 
carrying  a  light  crop  may  reach  the  desired  size  and  yet 
be  too  green  to  ripen  well.  Pears  picked  too  green  wilt 
in  storage  and  refuse  to  ripen.  When  ready  to  pick, 
the  Bartlett  and  many  other  varieties  have  a  characteristic 
mottled  appearance  as  shown  in  Figure  71.  The  pear 


Picking  the  Fruit  265 

on  the  right  is  a  Bartlett  ready  to  pick  and  the  one  on 
the  left  is  too  green.  This  mottled  or  spotted  appearance 
is  brought  about  by  a  lightening  of  the  dead  green  color 
over  most  of  the  surface,  leaving  the  dark  green  base  of 
the  dots  standing  out  in  contrast  with  the  lighter  green. 
The  first  trace  of  yellow  appears  about  the  base  of  the 
stem,  and  fruit  picked  as  soon  as  the  green  begins  to  fade 
at  this  point  will  ripen  in  storage.  This  first  change  of 
color  at  the  tip  of  the  neck  is  considered  to  be  a  reliable 
indication  of  the  maturity  of  the  fruit.  With  some 
varieties  these  changes  of  color  are  not  so  pronounced  and 
other  tests  must  be  applied. 

The  ease  with  which  the  fruit  separates  from  the  spur 
is  considered  a  reliable  test  for  maturity  and,  with  most 
varieties,  a  pear  that  comes  from  the  spur  Tvhen  taken  in 
the  hand  and  tipped  up  is  ripe  enough  to  pick.  It  is 
generally  conceded  that  the  crop  is  ready  to  pick  when 
the  wormy  specimens  show  the  first  indications  of 
ripening,  or  when  they  begin  to  turn  yellow  and  are 
well  flavored.  Experts  also  learn  to  pick  by  the  grain 
of  the  flesh,  as  the  coarseness  disappears  at  picking 
time. 

It  is  the  general  practice  to  make  two  or  three  pickings, 
each  time  picking  only  those  that  are  large  enough  to 
make  a  desirable  pack.  A  light  watering  after  each 
picking  will  help  to  bring  the  smaller  fruit  up  to  size. 
The  picker  may  be  given  a  2J  inch  ring  and  instructed 
to  pick  all  that  will  not  pass  through  it.  A  quicker  way 
is  to  learn  to  measure  with  the  hand.  Clasp  a  2\  inch 
pear  in  the  hand  and  attempt  to  encircle  it  with  the  thumb 
and  second  finger,  and  in  this  way  learn  how  near  they 


266  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

should  come  to  meeting  on  the  smallest  size  allowed  in 
a  good  pack. 

Pears  should  be  carefully  picked  and  handled  to  avoid 
bruising.  Bruises  do  not  show  early,  but  after  the  fruit 
is  ripe,  decay  starts  quickly  in  the  injured  spots.  The 
fruit  should  be  picked  with  perfect  stems  and  without  de- 
stroying spurs.  It  should  not  be  allowed  to  stand  in  the 
sun  or  warm  storage,  as  this  shortens  its  life  in  cold- 
storage;  and,  although  it  may  be  mature  enough  to  ripen 
well  in  cold-storage,  fruit  may  wilt  if  handled  carelessly. 
It  is  best  for  the  grower  to  harvest  and  market  the  pear 
crop  as  promptly  as  possible  and  let  the  buyer  take  the 
responsibility  of  ripening  it. 

Picking  Plums 

Plums  are  picked  before  they  are  really  considered 
eating-ripe.  Many  of  the  red  plums  of  the  American 
and  Japanese  types  will  ripen  well  when  picked  green  and 
will  color  well  off  the  tree.  As  a  rule,  however,  it  is  well 
to  leave  the  fruit  on  the  tree  as  long  as  possible,  especially 
the  fancier  plums  supplied  to  the  fruit-stand  trade. 
The  varieties  commonly  known  as  prunes  carry  very 
well  after  they  are  really  ripe. 

Like  a  peach,  a  plum  picked  after  the  flesh  feels  elastic 
to  the  touch  will  ripen  well  in  storage  or  in  transit.  Plums 
picked  for  jelly  are  best  taken  rather  green. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
PACKING  AND  GRADING   THE  FRUIT 

THE  idea  of  packing  tree-fruits  in  what  we  may  term 
fancy  packages  is  not  an  old  one,  and  there  is  no  reason 
to  suppose  that  we  have  reached  perfection.  Yet  there 
is  little  doubt  that  the  western  fruit-grower  now  leads 
in  putting  his  fruit  on  the  market  in  attractive  packages. 
He  prides  himself  on  this  point.  Whether  an  indication 
of  cleverness  or  an  outgrowth  of  necessity,  it  has  been 
demonstrated  that  it  pays  to  market  fruit  in  neat  and 
attractive  packages. 

It  seems  to  us  that  the  western  fruit-packages  have 
four  points  of  merit:  they  are  neat  and  attractive;  they 
are  of  convenient  size,  that  is,  they  suit  the  buyer  of 
fancy  fruit  better  than  a  larger  sized  package;  they 
are  of  convenient  form  for  shipping  in  car-load  lots;  and 
they  carry  the  fruit  in  excellent  condition. 

Probably  the  western  grower  may  claim  the  credit 
for  demonstrating  that  the  first  two  points  are  worthy 
of  consideration  in  choosing  the  fancy  fruit-package. 
There  is  little  doubt,  however,  but  that  the  distance  from 
market  has  had  a  marked  influence  on  the  evolution  of 
the  fruit-package  in  the  West.  Western  growers  have 
largely  adopted  the  ideas  worked  out  in  California. 
Considering  our  distance  from  the  large  markets,  it  would 
be  absurd  for  the  western  grower  to  try  to  market  his 

267 


268  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

peaches  in  bushel  baskets ;  and  almost  as  ridiculous  to 
attempt  to  market  apples  and  pears  in  barrels.  The 
form  of  the  package,  and  possibly  its  size,  have  been 
determined  largely  by  conditions  under  which  the  western 
grower  markets  his  product.  The  peach  box,  for  example, 
is  designed  to  reduce  the  loss  from  bruising  to  a  minimum. 
The  same  is  true  of  other  packages;  they  are  designed 
to  carry  fruit  long  distances.  The  western  package  is 
generally  small  as  compared  with  other  packages,  and  it 
is  a  favorite  with  consumers  who  do  not  care  to  take  the 
risk  of  buying  in  larger  quantities.  A  neat  package  is 
without  question  an  advertisement  for  the  fruit. 

Granting  that  our  growers  are  satisfied  with  the  package 
in  which  they  market  their  fruit,  the  question  of  grading 
and  packing  is  well  worthy  of  consideration.  The  co- 
operative fruit-growers'  association  has  done  much  to 
establish  a  uniform  system  of  grading  and  packing  fruit. 
Yet  the  writers  are  of  the  opinion  that  at  the  present 
time  the  management  of  some  of  our  associations  need 
arousing,  that  they  may  keep  abreast  of  the  times.  Our 
growers  are  now  allowing  the  fancy  fruit-growing  sections 
in  the  Northwest  to  take  the  lead,  especially  in  grading 
and  packing  apples.  So  far  we  seem  to  be  at  the  front 
in  grading  and  packing  pears  and  peaches;  but  even  here 
competition  will  no  doubt  force  us  to  improve  on  present 
methods.  While  many  growers  now  contend  that  the 
present  method  of  grading  places  the  standard  for  fancy 
fruit  too  high,  the  writers  expect  soon  to  see  the  re- 
quirements raised  for  the  different  grades;  and  they  will 
be  raised  at  the  request  of  progressive  growers.  When 
we  say  that  the  management  of  the  association  needs 


Packing  and  Grading  the  Fruit  269 

to  be  roused,  we  do  not  necessarily  mean  the  man  who 
stands  at  the  head  of  the  organization,  for  he  often  fore- 
sees changes  that  must  come  long  before  he  dares  to 
suggest  them;  it  is  the  influential  growers  within  the 
association  who  need  to  be  made  to  realize  that  methods 
must  be  improved. 

The  early  idea  of  many  associations  was  to  pack  the 
fruit  at  a  central  packing-house.  By  employing  a  com- 
petent man  to  look  after  the  packers,  they  hoped  to 
secure  a  uniform  pack  on  which  they  could  establish  a 
reputation.  The  plan  is  still  followed  by  some  associa- 
tions, in  spite  of  its  drawbacks.  With  a  large  volume  of 
business,  however,  it  is  impossible  for  the  management  to 
handle  the  fruit  under  such  a  system.  It  is  impossible 
for  one  foreman  to  see  that  a  hundred  packers,  or  even 
half  that  number,  pack  a  uniform  grade.  Again,  it  is 
not  always  possible  to  secure 'help,  and  the  equipment 
generally  proves  inadequate  at  the  critical  time.  To 
say  the  least,  the  difficulties  experienced  in  securing  a 
uniform  grade  and  in  handling  a  large  crop,  are  burden- 
some to  the  management. 

The  oldest  association,  and  the  one  now  doing  the  largest 
business  in  this  group  of  states,  has  long  since  given  up 
this  plan  and  has  adopted  a  system  of  platform  inspection. 
Each  grower  is  responsible  for  packing  his  fruit  and  de- 
livering it  to  the  platform.  Here  the  inspector  opens 
as  many  of  the  boxes  as  he  chooses  and  inspects  the  con- 
tents. If  the  grade  and  pack  is  satisfactory,  the  grower 
is  given  credit  for  so  many  boxes  of  such  a  grade;  if  the 
pack  is  not  up  to  grade,  he  has  his  choice  of  having  it 
"  marked-down "  or  taking  it  back  home  and  regrading 


270  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

and  repacking  it.  This  association  gives  the  growers 
instruction  in  packing  and  it  furnishes  printed  rules  for 
grading. 

After  seeing  the  two  systems  in  practice,  the  writers 
are  inclined  to  consider  the  latter  the  best.  The  grower 
is  made  responsible  for  packing  his  own  fruit,  and  he 
generally  secures  the  help,  or  he  works  overtime  doing 
it  himself;  and  with  a  good  inspector  we  think  that  the 
association  markets  a  better  grade  of  fruit.  Repacking 
about  one  load  of  fruit  will  make  such  a  lasting  impression 
on  the  packer  that  he  will  never  forget  what  constitutes 
a  good  grade. 

We  realize  that  in  arriving  at  this  conclusion  our  ideas 
are  contrary  to  those  of  some  other  writers  on  the  subject. 
In  a  recent  bulletin  from  the  Idaho  Experiment  Station, 
Judson  writes  as  follows  in  regard  to  the  management 
of  packers:  "Few  men  are  fit  to  pack  their  own  apples, 
as  it  is  too  hard  for  them  to  see  worm-holes.  No  fruit 
union  can  afford  to  allow  members  to  do  their  own  packing, 
and  even  unorganized  communities  would  benefit  greatly 
by  employing  the  same  body  of  trained  packers  successively 
at  the  various  orchards.  Even  the  isolated  growers 
should  endeavor,  if  their  orchards  are  large,  to  train  a 
group  of  expert  packers  and  employ  the  same  ones  as 
far  as  possible  year  after  year.  This  is  the  way  to  build 
up  a  reputation  that  has  a  cash  value." 

Judson  seems  to  arrive  at  this  conclusion  after  studying 
the  system  employed  by  the  Hood  River  Apple  Growers' 
Union.  This  association  handles  its  own  packers,  send- 
ing them  out  in  groups  of  four,  each  group  with  a  com- 
petent foreman.  We  realize  that  this  is  different  from 


Packing  and  Grading  the  Fruit  271 

one  man  handling  a  hundred  packers,  and  with  this 
system  Hood  River  has  developed  a  remarkable  reputa- 
tion for  its  fancy  apples.  An  idea  of  the  precautions 
taken  by  this  association  in  handling  its  packers,  and  the 
care  with  which  they  are  chosen,  is  best  conveyed  by 
quoting  their  printed  instructions  to  packers :  — 

INSTRUCTIONS  TO   PACKERS 

1.  A  crew  will  consist  of  four  packers  and  one  foreman  extra. 

2.  Each  packer,  before  he  is  permitted  to  pack  for  the  Apple 
Growers'  Union,  must  have  his  name  registered  at  the  office  of 
the  Union  and  receive  a  rubber  stamp  free.     He  shall  be  required 
to  stamp  each  box  at  the  lower  left  hand  corner  when  packed 
with  his  official  stamp. 

3.  Each  packer  shall  be  required  to  put  up  a  first-class  pack. 
If  upon  any  inspection  any  packer  be  found  guilty  of  putting  up 
a  poor  pack,  or  putting  in  apples  not  suitable  for  the  pack  being 
made,  he  shall  bear  the  expense  of  repacking  such  box  or  boxes 
for  the  first  two  offenses.     Upon  further  neglect  he  shall  be  dropped 
from  the  list  of  the  Apple  Growers'  Union  packers. 

4.  Each  packer,  when  a  box  is  packed,  shall  write  with  pencil 
upon  the  end  of  the  box,  in  the  center  near  the  top,  the  number 
of  apples  the  box  contains. 

5.  Each  box  of  apples  shall  be  packed  with  about  a  f-inch 
to  1-inch  swell  in  the  middle  of  the  top  and  bottom  combined, 
but  no  box  must  be  packed  so  high  that  it  will  be  necessary  to 
cleat  the  box  before  nailing  on  the  lid. 

6.  Each  packer  shall  receive  his  pay  from  the  grower  in  cash, 
or  on  a  written  order  on  the  Apple  Growers'  Union,  which  will  be 
cashed  by  the  manager  on  presentation. 

7.  The  charges  fixed  by  the  Union  and  agreed  to  by  the  packers 
for  packing,  will  be  5  cents  per  box  for  all  boxes  containing  128 
apples  or  less,  and  5  cents  per  box  for  all  boxes  packing  4J  tier. 
All  5-tier  apples  will  be  packed  at  6  cents.     This  price  shall  cover 
any  and  all  packs  ordered  by  the  manager. 


272  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

8.  Each  packer  will  be  furnished  meals  by  the  grower  where 
he  is  packing,  without  charge,  but  must  make  necessary  arrange- 
ments for  his  bedding. 

9.  Packers  are  only  required  to  pack  fruit  properly  wiped  and 
assorted  from  culls  fairly  well  by  the  grower  before  being  placed 
upon  the  packing  table,  but  the  packer  will  be  required  to  make 
the  final  culling,  which  shall  not  exceed  8  per  cent,  or  8  boxes  in 
100.     Such  boxes  as  the  packer  may  throw  out  he  will  be  required 
to  handle  with  as  much  care  as  first-class  fruit. 

10.  Each  packer  must  be  supplied  with  suitable  and  necessary 
room  at  the  packing  table,  which  must  be  properly  and  sub- 
stantially made. 

11.  Each  packer  shall  require  the  grower  to  supply  him  with 
empty  boxes  and  have  the  paper  in  a  convenient  place. 

12.  Each  packer  must  set  off  his  box  when  packed. 

13.  If  the  grower  is  not  properly  prepared  for  the  packers, 
the  packers  will  be  at  liberty  to  move  on,  or  may  charge  the 
grower  at  the  rate  of  20  cents  per  hour  for  extra  time  spent  in 
culling  and  wiping  properly.     It  shall  be  the  duty  of  each  packer 
to  notify  the  grower  of  such  conditions,  when  existing,  in  advance, 
and  should  the  grower  make  a  protest,  the  packer  will  be  at 
liberty  to  move  on  and  report  the  matter  to  the  manager,  who 
will  endeavor  conscientiously  to  adjust  the  matter  satisfactorily. 

14.  Packers  must  be  sure  to  have  the  exact  number  of  apples 
in  the  box  as  numbered.     Foremen  are  cautioned  to  watch  this. 
Avoid  criticism  by  following  this  instruction.     We  are  on  the 
lookout  for  this  sleight-of-hand  trick. 

15.  Please  assist  the  packer.     He  is  also  a  grower  and  your 
friend;  and  remember  he  is  following  the  instructions  given  by 
the  Board  of  Directors,  who  are  acting  as  directors  with  your 
interest  at  heart,  giving  one  day  each  week  of  their  time  without 
pay. 

We  must  give  these  Oregon  growers  the  credit  of  put- 
ting their  apples  on  the  market  in  what  is  probably  the 
finest  commercial  pack  ever  put  up.  (Fig.  97.)  The  time 
is  probably  not  far  distant  when  other  fancy  fruit-growing 


Packing  and  Grading  the  Fruit  273 

localities  will  be  following  their  example.  Their  apples 
are  packed  as  carefully  as  most  growers  pack  their  peaches 
or  pears,  or  as  carefully  as  California  growers  pack  their 
oranges,  and  the  returns  justify,  them  for  the  extra  labor 
and  expense.  The  association  schools  its  packers  and 
holds  them  responsible  for  faults  in  their  own  packing. 
While  the  printed  instructions  state  that  the  packers  are 
paid  by  the  piece,  this  plan  has  been  abandoned  and  the 
packers  are  now  paid  by  the  day.  Provided  such  a 
system  can  be  worked  on  a  large  scale,  this  is  no  doubt  the 
best  method  of  handling  packers  that  has  yet  been  de- 
vised. 

Packing  Appliances 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  mention  the  desirability  of 
having  convenient  packing  equipment  on  the  fruit-farm. 
Most  growers  are  provided  with  packing  houses,  but 
many  of  these  buildings  are  poorly  lighted.  In  planning 
the  packing  house,  this  point  should  be  given  special 
attention  as  the  packers  must  have  good  light  properly  to 
grade  the  fruit. 

Packing  out  of  doors  is  often  hard  on  the  packers  and 
hard  on  the  fruit,  especially  in  the  warm  days  of  early 
fall.  Figure  70  shows  a  force  of  packers  moved  outside 
because  the  well-equipped  packing  house  proved  too  small 
for  the  force  of  packers  necessary  to  handle  a  large  crop 
from  a  200-acre  orchard. 

Owners  of  large  orchards  sometimes  supply  themselves 
with  a  large  tent  in  which  to  do  the  packing.  It  is  sur- 
prising how  cool  a  tent  will  keep  the  fruit,  and  the  light 
is  almost  perfect.  The  grower  should  at  least  provide 
some  place  where  the  fruit  may  be  stored  in  the  shade  as 

T 


274 


Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 


soon  as  picked  and  kept  as  cool  as  possible  until  it  can 
be  delivered  to  the  shipping  point. 

Packing  tables  are  generally  home-made.  The  table 
shown  in  Figure  70  is  a  very  good  type.  Each  of  these 
tables  accommodates  four  packers,  has  stands  for  two 
boxes  in  front  of  each  packer,  and  a  stand  for  the  cull- 
box  on  either  side  near  the  center. 
This  table  has  a  canvas  bottom 
and  fruit  may  be  packed  from  it 
with  very  little  danger  of  bruis- 
ing. It  could  be  improved  by 
placing  the  stands  for  the  boxes 
a  little  higher  and  constructing 
them  so  that  they  hold  the  boxes 
in  an  inclined  position,  the  end 
near  the  packer  being  slightly 
lower. 

Most  tables  are  made  to  ac- 
commodate two  packers.  It  is 
a  good  plan  to  have  the  top  of 
the  table  on  an  incline,  the  pack- 
ers working  on  the  lower  side. 
The  table  is  filled  from  the  back  and  the  fruit  gradually 
slides  down  to  the  front  as  the  packer  works  that  nearest 
him  off  the  table.  Tables  with  board  bottoms  should  be 
well  padded  and  all  sharp  corners  should  be  covered. 
The  best  tables  have  either  canvas  or  burlap  bottoms. 

There  are  many  styles  of  box-presses  to  be  had,  both 
factory-made  and  home-made.  A  good  press  is  indis- 
pensable in  packing  apples  and  pears.  Figure  72  shows 
a  very  good  type  of  press  that  may  be  used  for  either 


FIG.  72.  —  Box  Press. 


Packing  and  Grading  the  Fiuit 


275 


apples  or  pears.  There  are  other  presses,  however,  that 
are  just  as  good  and  some  that  are  not  nearly  so  cumber- 
some. 

Box  material,  or  "box  shook"  as  it  is  called,  is  bought 
knocked-down  and  is  made  up  by  the  grower.  The  com- 
mon price  paid  for  making  apple  and  pear  boxes  is  90 
cents  per  hundred.  A  box-maker  who  knows  his  business 
will  set  up  fifty  boxes  per  hour.  Peach  boxes  are  made 
by  the  piece  for  40  cents  per  hundred.  The  following 
is  the  price  list  on  box  material  as  furnished  the  growers 
by  the  Grand  Junction  Fruit-growers'  association  during 
the  season  of  1908:  — 

BOXES 

Per  100         Less  than  50 

3f  -  and  3-inch  Peach $  8.00  $  8.50 

4-inch  Peach 8.50  9.00 

4i-inch  Peach 9.00  9.50 

5-inch  Peach 9.50  10.00 

4^-inch  Grape  Crates  (no  baskets)      ...  11.00  11.50 

4|-mch  Grape  Crates,  complete     ....  15.00  15.50 

Pear  Boxes 14.00  14.50 

Apple  Boxes 16.00  16.50 

Standard  Cantaloupe  Crates 16.00  16.50 

Pony  Cantaloupe  Crates 16.00  16.50 

Tin  Top  Baskets 1.00  1.00 

Climax  Baskets 5.00  5.00 

PARTS   OF   BOXES 
Apples 

Per  1 00  boxes  Per  bundle 

Ends $6.75  $  .90 

Sides 5.40  1.35 

Top  and  Bottoms 5.40  1.35 

Cleat*    .    ,    t                            ,    .         .           .50  .50 


276 


Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 


Pear 


Per  100  boxes 

Per  bundle 

Sides      , 

$4.40 

$1.10 

Ends      , 

6.00 

.75 

Peach 

Ends      , 

,     3.00 

.75 

Sides      

2.20 

1.10 

Grape  Crates 

Ends      , 

4.00 

1.00 

Sides      , 

......          2.20 

1.10 

Bottoms     , 

2.20 

1.10 

Tops       , 

3.00 

1.50 

Cleats    .     .     . 

.80 

.80 

PAPER 

Peach,  Pear,  and  Apple,  paper,  per  100 

NAILS 


Bundle    Broken  bundle 
$5.50  $6.00 


Keg 


Barbed  Box  Nails,  4d,  5d,  6d $4.50 

Cement  Coated  Nails,  3d,  4d,  5d,  6d       .     .          4.50 
Cement  Coated  Nails,  2d 5.00 

A  keg  of  cement  nails  contains  only  about  seventy  pounds, 
but  contains  the  same  number  of  nails  as  a  keg  of  wire  nails. 


Pound 
$  .05 
.07 
.10 


BERRY   BOXES 

Hallock  Folding  Quart  Boxes,  square,  per  M 
Hallock  Folding  Pint  Boxes,  square,  per  M    .     .     .     . 
Hallock  Folding  Pint  or  Quart  Boxes,  square,  per  100 

Hallock  Crates,  Quart  Spruce,  per  100 

Hallock  Crates,  Pint  Spruce,  per  100 


I  3.50 

3.00 

.40 

10.00 
9.00 


Packing  Apples 

In  the  several  inter-mountain  states  there  are  various 
systems  of  apple-packing.     Possibly  the  bulk  of  the  apple 


Packing  and  Grading  the  Fruit 


277 


crop  is  packed  in  what  is  known  as  the  "jumble  pack," 
and  in  two  grades  known  as  " fancy"  and  " choice." 
Some  associations  put  out  a  particular  pack  known  as 


FIG.  73.  —  A  Typical  Box  Label  for  Extra  Fan 
the  2-2  Pack. 


Fruit;  also  illustrates 


"extra  fancy,"  and  label  it  with  some  special  label  as 
that  shown  in  Figure  73.  This  grade  is  extra-selected 
for  size  and  color,  but  is  otherwise  no  better  than  the  fancy 


278  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

grade.  It  is  a  question  whether  with  this  system  of  pack- 
ing it  is  better  to  pack  in  three  grades  or  in  two. 

Fancy  fruit  must  be  of  good  size,  free  from  worm-holes 
or  worm-stings  or  other  defects,  of  good  color,  and  good 
shape.  The  standard  of  size  generally  given  for  the 
different  varieties  are  those  found  in  the  grading  list 
of  the  Grand  Junction  Fruit-growers  Association,  as 
printed  below.  The  choice  grade  is  made  up  of  fruit 
larger  than  2J  inches  in  diameter,  reasonably  free  from 
worms  or  other  blemishes.  It  is  true  that  buyers  seem 
to  find  little  fault  with  this  method,  but  competition  will 
probably  necessitate  a  more  uniform  method  of  grading 
and  a  better  system  of  packing. 

Boxes  of  different  dimensions  are  used  in  the  various 
fruit  sections.  They  are  made  of  light  pine,  the  ends  of 
J-inch,  and  the  sides,  tops,  and  bottoms  of  ^-inch  material. 
Material  f  of  an  inch  in  thickness  is  sometimes  recom- 
mended for  the  sides,  as  it  prevents  bulging.  Boxes  are 
generally  stacked  and  hauled  on  the  side,  and  if  the  sides 
are  bulged  there  is  a  tendency  to  bruise  the  fruit.  The 
sides  of  the  box  are  each  a  single  piece,  while  the  tops  and 
bottoms  are  generally  made  of  two  pieces.  In  making 
up  the  box,  the  top  is  put  on  instead  of  the  bottom  and 
is  held  with  f  X  f  inch  cleats.  These  cleats  mark  the  face 
of  the  box;  and  the  package  is  naturally  opened  on  this 
side,  as  the  cleats  facilitate  opening.  If  the  box  were 
faced  on  both  sides,  it  might  be  well  to  cleat  both  top  and 
bottom.  As  a  rule,  where  the  jumble  pack  is  used,  the 
box  has  inside  dimensions  of  11^  X  11 J  x  18  inches  and 
should  hold  fifty  pounds  when  packed. 

For  the  fancy  grade  the  box  is  lined  with  paper.     The 


Packing  and  Grading  the  Fruit 


279 


paper  is  usually  cut  18  x  24  inches,   two  pieces  being 
sufficient  to  line  the  bottom,  sides,  and  top  of  the  box. 


FIG.  74.  —  The  2-3  Pack. 

A  one-inch  plait  is  folded  across  the  paper  about  six 
inches  from  one  end.  In  placing  the  paper  in  the  box, 
this  fold  is  laid  in  the  angle  between  the  side  and  bottom, 


280 


Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 


thus  furnishing  enough  slack  so  that  the  paper  will  not 
tear  when  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  box  bulge.  Some 
persons  use  paper  in  the  end  of  the  box,  but  this  is  not 
necessary.  Boxes  for  choice  fruit  are  seldom  lined. 


FIG.  75.  —  The  3-3  Pack. 


The  box  is  placed  before  the  packer  with  the  end  from 
the  packer  slightly  raised.  The  apples  in  the  first  layer 
are  placed  with  the  stems  down  and  they  are  neatly  ar- 
ranged, for  this  is  to  be  the  face  of  the  box.  Whether 


Packing  and  Grading  the  Fruit 


281 


the  face  is  to  be  the  2-3  or  the  3-3  pack  will  depend  on 
the  size  of  the  fruit.  Large  fruit  is  sometimes  packed  the 
2-2  pack.  Figure  74  is  a  box  of  Gano  faced  with  the 
2-3  pack.  The  box  shown  in  Figure  75  is  faced  with 
the  same  apples  except  that  a  few  of  the  larger  ones  had 
to  be  replaced  with  smaller  ones  in  order  to  make  it 
come  out  right  with  the  3-3  pack. 
According  to  the  size  of  the  fruit, 
the  face  should  be  packed  to  pre- 
sent the  neatest  appearance,  and 
the  face  showing  the  fewer  large 
openings  is  generally  considered  the 
neater.  The  straight  pack  as  shown 
in  Figure  76  is  sometimes  used,  but 
it  is  too  hard  on  the  fruit,  one  apple 
lying  directly  on  top  of  the  one  in 
the  tier  below.  The  second  tier  is 
faced  stem  down  as  the  first,  and, 
with  the  " diagonal"  or  " offset" 
pack,  is  placed  to  cover  the  open- 
ings in  the  first  tier  as  is  shown 
by  Figure  75.  The  remainder  of  the  apples  are  put  in 
with  the  jumble  pack,  paying  little  attention  to  placing 
them;  they  find  their  places.  The  box  should  be  so  filled 
that  when  the  bottom  is  pressed  down  and  nailed  on,  the 
box  will  appear  as  shown  in  Figure  77.  So  long  as  the 
jumble  pack  is  used,  this  bulge  should  be  f  inch  to  an 
inch  on  both  top  and  bottom. 

When  the  fruit  is  packed  in  tiers  all  the  way  through,  a 
box  of  different  dimensions  has  come  into  use.  The  box 
known  as  the  "standard"  in  the  Northwest  has  inside  di- 


FIG.  76.  —  Straight  Pack. 


282 


Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 


mensions  of  10  J  X  11J  x  1 8  and  the  "  special"  10  X  11X20. 
It  has  been  found  necessary  to  use  these  sizes  in  putting 
up  the  fancy  tier  packs.  They  accommodate  all  sizes 
of  apples.  The  apples  are  packed  in  regular  tiers  and  are 
graded  very  uniformly  as  to  size.  They  are  wrapped  in 
paper,  and  a  piece  of  heavy  cardboard  is  placed  between 


FIG.  77. —  Box  of  Apples  Ready  for  Shipment,  showing  Proper  Bulge 
of  Top  and  Bottom. 

each  two  tiers.  The  number  of  apples  packed  in  each 
box  is  stamped  on  the  end.  This  is  no  doubt  the  best 
pack  of  apples  put  on  the  market  to-day.  Wrapped  and 
packed  in  this  way,  the  box  of  apples  appeals  to  the  buyer 
as  a  strictly  fancy  package.  The  fruit  carries  with  fewer 
bruises,  and  such  a  pack  is  especially  desirable  for  export 
trade.  The  time  is  probably  not  far  distant  when  all 
fancy  apples  will  be  marketed  in  this  way.  Wrapping 
prolongs  the  life  of  the  fruit  in  storage.  When  packed 


Packing  and  Grading  the  Fruit  283 

in  regular  tiers,  it  is  best  to  place  the  apples  in  the  top 
and  bottom  tier  stems  outward. 

Packing  Apricots 

Apricots  are  packed  for  shipment  in  the  common  four- 
basket  carrier,  which  is  used  for  grapes  and  plums.  The 
inside  measurement  of  this  crate  is  16  x  16  x  4^  inches, 
and  it  carries  four  wood-veneer  boxes,  each  8  inches 
square  and  4  inches  deep.  The  way  in  which  the  fruit 
is  packed  depends  on  its  size.  The  fruit  must  be  large 
enough  to  fill  the  basket  and  stand  high  enough  to  touch 
the  lid  when  packed  three-tier.  This  requires  a  fruit 
with  one  diameter  of  at  least  1J  inches,  and  to  pack  apri- 
cots of  this  size,  it  is  necessary  to  stand  them  on  end  and 
place  one  directly  over  the  other.  Fruit  of  this  size  does 
not  make  a  satisfactory  pack,  and  a  size  large  enough  to 
work  with  the  diamond  pack  is  desirable;  this  bruises 
the  fruit  less. 

The  empty  baskets  are  placed  in  the  crate  and  packed 
with  paper  between  each  two  layers  of  fruit.  This  paper  is 
a  continuous  strip,  first  running  across  the  bottom  and 
then  over  each  layer  of  fruit  by  being  worked  back  and 
forth  across  the  basket.  With  the  third  tier  in  place 
the  end  should  be  long  enough  to  cover  the  face  of  the 
basket.  The  fruit  is  placed  in  any  position  to  pack  to 
the  best  advantage.  When  the  four  baskets  are  full, 
the  face  of  the  crate  should  have  the  appearance  of  that 
of  a  solid  box  of  fruit.  The  fruit  should  be  snugly  packed 
in  each  tier,  and  the  last  tier  must  stand  high  enough  to 
give  a  slight  bulge  to  the  cover.  Both  the  bottom  and 
the  top  of  the  crate  are  cleated  to  relieve  the  bulge  of 
any  pressure  in  stacking  the  crates. 


284  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

Packing  Cherries 

Growers  outside  of  Oregon  and  Washington  are  raising 
simply  canning  cherries.  While  the  inter-mountain  or- 
chardmen are  beginning  to  grow  some  of  the  fancy  varie- 
ties, they  are  really  not  growing  a  fancy  grade  or  shipping 
them  in  a  fancy  package. 

At  present  the  bulk  of  the  cherry  crop  of  most  sections 
is  sold  in  strawberry  crates.  Different  styles  of  crates 
are  used,  the  common  crate  holding  twenty-four  quart 
boxes,  the  square  or  oblong  form  being  used  more  often 
than  any  other.  Of  the  two,  the  square  box  is  possibly 
a  little  easier  packed  and  faced.  Regardless  of  the  box, 
the  packing  is  the  same.  The  first  requirement  is  that 
each  box  shall  contain  a  pound  of  fruit,  and  the  twenty- 
four-basket  crate  should  weigh  about  thirty  pounds  gross. 
The  boxes  should  be  faced  with  no  stems  showing,  if  the 
package  is  to  make  an  attractive  appearance,  and  most 
shipping  associations  require  the  grower  to  face  the  pack- 
age in  this  way.  The  fruit  should  be  well  colored  for  the 
variety  and  of  good  size;  it  should  also  be  sound  and 
must  not  have  stems  loosened  or  pulled  off. 

Fancy  cherries  are  largely  shipped  in  ten-pound  boxes. 
The  inside  dimension  of  this  box  is  l&jr  X  9  x  2\  inches. 
It  is  divided  in  the  middle  and  gives  two  cells  9  X  9  X  2 J. 
The  cherries  are  packed  in  layers,  the  face  of  the  package 
showing  no  stems. 

Figure  78  shows  the  different-sized  packages  that  are 
used  in  shipping  cherries.  They  hold  thirty,  ten,  and 
eight  pounds  respectively,  while  the  individual  cartons 
shown  at  the  top  contain  but  one  pound.  When  first 


Packing  and  Grading  the  Fruit  285 


I  fl        ''Wm^   ^pKBB^^^M 


>4» 


FIG.  78.  —  Cherry  Packages.     (Courtesy  of  "  Better  Fruit.") 


286 


Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 


opened,  the  larger  packages  present  a  very  pleasing  ap- 
pearance, but  as  soon  as  the  face  of  the  package  is  dis- 
turbed, they  are  often  far  from  pleasing.  The  pound 
cartons  are  not  open  to  this  objection,  and  for  this  reason 
are  much  more  satisfactory  to  the  retailer,  as  the  last 
pound  makes  as  good  an  appearance  as  a  full  crate. 

Packing  Peaches 

The  peach  has  probably  been  marketed  in  as  great  a 
variety  of  packages  as  any  other  fruit,  from  the  bushel 
basket  to  the  common  grape  basket  and  the  four-  and  six- 
basket  carriers.  But 
the  California  peach 
box,  in  which  all  Colo- 
rado-grown peaches  are 
now  shipped,  seems  to 
come  nearest  perfec- 
tion of  any  package 
ever  used  for  shipping 
peaches  long  distances. 
It  is  a  convenient  shape 
for  loading  in  cars,  car- 
ries the  fruit  in  excel- 
lent condition,  and  may 
be  termed  a  fancy-sized 
package.  It  is  a  light 
pine  box  18  inches  in 
length  and  11J  inches 
in  width,  and  is  made 
in  three  depths,  4,  4J, 
FIG.  79.— Peaches,  6-6  Straight  Pack.  and  5  inches  (all  meas- 


Packing  and  Grading  the  Fruit  287 

urements  inside  dimensions).  The  ends  are  of  |J-inch, 
and  the  tops,  sides,  and  bottoms  of  ^-inch  material. 
As  the  box  carries  only  two  layers,  the  lower  one  is  not 
bruised  by  the  weight  of  the  fruit  above,  and  the  contents 
cool  quickly  in  the  car 
or  in  storage.  The  box 
is  made  up  in  a  way 
to  provide  ample  ven- 
tilation. 

Peaches  are  com- 
monly packed  in  three 
grades,  and  although 
they  may  go  by  differ- 
ent names,  they  are 
practically  uniform. 
The  common  terms 
used  to  designate 
these  grades  are  "  ex- 
tra," "90's,"  and 
"108's";  or  "extra 
fancy,"  "fancy,"  and 
"choice."  While 
many  of  our  Eastern 
friends  persist  in  call- 

.  FIG.  80.  — Peaches,  3 -3  Pack. 

ing  for     choice     fruit 

when  they  mean  "fancy,"  the  western  grower  has  a  dislike 
of  the  term  "choice";  and  some  persons  object  to  calling 
the  "  108's"  "choice,"  when  in  the  true  sense  of  the  word 
they  are  not.  The  first  set  of  terms  is  to  be  preferred. 
A  box  of  "  extra"  peaches  should  run  less  than  80  to  the  box, 
a  box  of  "90's"  from  81  to  94,  and  "  108's"  from  95  to  108, 


288 


Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 


These  three  grades  are  packed  in  the  4-,  4^-,  and  5-inch 
boxes  respectively.  Occasionally  a  smaller  grade,  known 
as  "pies,"  is  packed  unwrapped  and  shipped  to  near-by 
markets,  but  as  a  rule  it  will  not  pay  to  ship  such  fruit. 
_  _  m  The  years  when  the 

grower  really  gets  prof- 
itable returns  from 
108's  are  the  exception 
rather  than  the  rule. 
Extras  sometimes  run 
as  low  as  40  to  the 
box,  but  such  fruit  is 
too  large  to  be  widely 
popular;  probably  the 
most  popular  size  is 
the  extra  running 
from  70  to  80  to  the 
box. 

Most  peaches  are 
graded  by  hand,  and 
there  seems  to  be  little 
promise  of  finding  a 
more  satisfactory  sys- 
^m.  The  packers 
grade  the  fruit  as  they 
pack.  They  have  the  three  boxes  for  the  three  marketable 
grades  before  them  and  a  cull  box  at  one  side  for  the 
remainder.  Experienced  packers  are  able  to  grade  by 
eye,  and  inexperienced  packers  are  furnished  gauges  to  go 
by  until  they  learn.  Peaches  that  grade  extra  must  not 
run  less  than  2-J-  inches  in  diameter,  fancy  from  2J  to  2J, 
and  choice  from  2  to  2. 


FIG.  si.  —  Peaches,  4-5  Pack. 


Packing  and  Grading  the  Fruit  289 

So  far  only  one  fruit  association  (The  Peach  Growers' 
Association,  Palisade,  Colorado)  has  installed  machinery 
for  grading.  This  plant  has  been  in  operation  only  one  sea- 
son, and  it  cannot  be  said  that  it  has  been  fully  tested.  The 
writers  have  watched  the  plant  in  operation,  and  while 
it  gives  an  absolutely  uniform  grade  of  fruit,  it  seems  that 
some  fruit  cannot  escape  being  bruised.  The  fruit  is 
first  lifted  to  the  grading  belts  from  the  floor  level  by 
an  elevator,  and  is  then  lowered  from  the  hoppers  to  the 
distributing  belts  through  a  canvas  tube.  The  fruit  of 
each  grade  is  weighed  automatically,  and  the  grower  is 
given  credit  by  these  weights.  The  managers  of  the 
business  seem  to  be  pleased  with  the  system.  If  the 
associations  insist  on  packing  peaches  at  a  central  pack- 
ing house,  some  such  system  of  grading  must  be  installed. 
Previous  to  the  installing  of  the  grader,  this  association 
graded  with  one  of  the  common  foot-power  graders. 

Peaches  should  be  packed  from  well-padded  or  canvas- 
bottom  packing  tables,  and  should  be  handled  as  care- 
fully as  possible.  The  table  should  be  so  arranged  that 
the  packer  has  a  place  for  three  boxes  and  a  stand  for 
the  wrapping  paper.  One  end  of  the  box  is  slightly 
raised,  and  each  layer  is  packed  from  the  lower  end  -up. 
The  packer  generally  stands  with  the  right  hand  to  the 
table,  takes  the  fruit  in  the  right  hand,  places  it  in  the 
center  of  the  paper  in  the  left  hand,  crumples  the  paper 
about  it,  and  then  places  it  in  the  box.  The  paper  is 
a  rather  heavy  tissue,  7x7  or  7x8  inches.  The  experi- 
enced packer  learns  many  little  tricks  in  wrapping  and 
packing.  More  is  gained  than  one  would  think  in  having 
the  paper  in  just  the  right  place,  and  a  rubber  stall  on 
u 


290  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

the  thumb  of  the  left  hand  is  a  great  help  in  picking 
up  the  paper. 

There  are  many  styles  of  packs.       Men  who  are  in 
a  position  to  know  seem  to  prefer  the  3-3  or  the  2-3 

pack  for  all  grades, 
and  the  time  will  come 
when  these  will  be  the 
only  packs  allowed. 
Any  of  the  straight 
packs  are  objection- 
able, as  one  fruit  lies 
directly  on  top  of  the 
one  below.  Figure 
79  illustrates  what  is 
called  a  6-6  straight 
pack.  It  is  objection- 
able because  it  allows 
the  packer  to  pack  too 
small  a  grade  of  fruit. 
As  the  peaches  of  the 
top  tier  lie  directly 
on  top  of  those  below, 
many  bruises  result. 
Figure  80  illustrates 
the  3-3  pack  of  108's. 

This  takes  a  little  larger  fruit,  and  it  is  more  desirable. 
The  first  box  contains  the  maximum  number  of  peaches 
for  this  grade  and  the  second  only  102.  Figure  81  illus- 
trates the  4-5  pack  of  90's,  a  very  neat  pack,  but  the 
large  openings  along  the  sides  are  objectionable.  For 
the  sake  of  uniformity  it  would  have  been  better  to 


Packing  and  Grading  the  Fruit  291 

have  used  the  3-3  pack;  in  fact,  such  a  pack  is  not 
allowable.  Figure  82  is  the  2-3  diamond  pack  used 
for  the  extra  grade.  This  box  contains  70  peaches 
and  may  be  considered  an  excellent  grade.  This  style 
will  accommodate  peaches  of  any  size,  from  40  to  80  to 
the  box.  Associations  should  insist  on  a  3-3  pack  for 
108's  and  90's  and  a  2-3  pack  for  extras,  and  many  do 
so.  These  styles  have  proved  to  be  the  best,  and  uni- 
formity in  packing  is  a  great  aid  in  marketing. 

In  placing  the  fruit  in  the  box  it  should  be  pressed 
together  tightly  enough  to  give  a  slight  bulge  to  the  sides 
of  the  box;  and  by  working  the  larger  fruit  nearer  the 
center  it  gives  a  slight  bulge  to  the  top  and  bottom.  With 
the  top  on  the  box  every  fruit  should  be  held  firmly 
in  position.  Both  the  top  and  the  bottom  are  cleated 
to  save  the  fruit  from  any  pressure  after  the  boxes  are 
stacked. 

Overripe  fruit  is  culled  out  by  the  packer  and  is  either 
packed  in  boxes  and  marked  "Ripe,"  for  local  shipment, 
thrown  in  the  cull  box,  or  put  in  boxes  to  be  delivered  to  the 
canning  factory. 

Some  growers  are  beginning  to  wrap  a  part  of  the  fruit 
with  wrappers  printed  in  attractive  colors  with  a  design  and 
the  owner's  name  and  address;  others  are  wrapping  in  two 
colors  of  paper.  It  may  be  said  that  both  add  to  the 
attractiveness  of  the  package,  and  the  first  surely  shows 
that  the  grower  is  not  ashamed  of  his  grade  and  pack. 

Most  of  the  packing  is  done  by  girls.  A  good  worker 
will  pack  200  to  250  boxes  per  day.  The  common  price 
paid  for  packing  peaches  is  two  cents  per  box.  The  grower 
delivers  the  fruit  to  the  table  and  furnishes  a  man  to  take 


292  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

away  the  packed  boxes  and  cover  them.  The  man  who 
does  this  work  is  generally  hired  by  the  day;  on  large 
jobs,  as  at  a  central  packing  house,  they  are  sometimes 
paid  by  the  piece. 

Packing  Plums 

All  the  larger  plums  and  prunes  are  packed  in  the  same 
way  as  apricots,  in  the  four-basket  crate.  The  fruit  must 
be  big  enough  to  fill  the  basket  and  touch  the  cover  of  the 
crate  when  packed  four-tier.  It  will  be  seen  by  the  grading 
list  of  the  Grand  Junction  Fruit-growers'  Association  that 
the  packed  crate  must  have  a  gross  weight  of  twenty-eight 
pounds  or  more. 

Small  plums  of  the  American  type,  Damson  and  the 
like,  are  shipped  in  2^-inch  plum  boxes.  The  box  must 
be  well  filled  and  neatly  faced.  The  inside  dimensions  of 
this  box  are  18  X  1 1^  X  2\  inches. 

Packing  Pears 

Western  pears  are  shipped  in  a  box  commonly  known 
as  the  California  pear  box.  This  is  made  of  light  material, 
as  spruce  or  pine;  the  ends  of  f-inch,  and  the  tops,  sides, 
and  bottoms  J-inch  material.  The  inside  dimensions  of 
this  box  are  18  X  11 J  X  8J.  It  is  supposed  to  hold  a 
bushel  and  should  have  a  gross  weight  of  at  least  fifty- 
three  pounds  when  packed. 

Pears  are  packed  in  two  grades,  " fancy"  and  "  choice," 
and  each  grade  in  three  sizes,  four-tier,  five-tier,  and  six- 
tier.  " Fancy"  pears  must  be  free  from  worms  or  worm 
stings,  abrasion  marks,  scale  pits,  and  other  defects,  and 
must  be  smooth  and  of  good  shape.  Excepting  where 
characteristic  of  the  variety,  heavy  russeting,  which  is 


Packing  and  Grading  the  Fruit  293 

sometimes  the  result  of  a  light  frost  in  the  spring,  is  ob- 
jectionable on  fancy  fruit;  it  detracts  from  the  beauty  of 
the  fruit  when  it  is  ripened.  The  " choice"  fruit  must 
be  reasonably  free  from  worms,  may  include  fruit  with 
abrasion  marks  (limb  rubs,  etc.),  russet,  or  a  few  scale  pits, 
and  fruit  slightly  "off"  in  shape.  However,  the  term 


a  c  b 

FIG.  83.  — Pears:  a,  2-3  Pack;  6,  3-3  Pack;  c,  3-4  Pack. 

"choice"  must  not  be  misconstrued  to  mean  everything 
that  grows  on  pear  trees. 

The  terms  "  four-tier,"  "five-tier,"  and  "six-tier  "  refer  to 
the  number  of  layers  of  fruit  required  to  fill  the  box.  A  six- 
tier  pack  contains  fruit  under  2\  inches  in  diameter,  and 
in  one  sense  may  be  considered  choice.  Some  varieties, 
however,  seldom  run  larger  than  this.  The  five-tier  pack 
seems  to  be  the  favorite  as  far  as  the  markets  are  concerned; 
it  should  contain  pears  2J  to  2f  inches  in  diameter. 
Larger  pears  make  up  the  four-tier  pack,  which  finds  a 


Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 


rather  brisk  demand  at  good  prices,  but  it  is  not  so  good  a 
seller  as  the  five-tier  and  seldom  demands  a  better  price. 
The  neatest  pack  of  pears  put  on  the  market  is  the  five- 
tier  pack,  running  135  pears  to  the  box,  requiring  fruit  all 
running  close  to  2f  inches  in  diameter. 

For  sake  of  uniformity  the  four-tier  pear  should  be 
packed  with  the  2-3  pack  as  shown 
in  Figure  83  a,  and  the  five-tier  and 
six-tier  with  the  3-3  pack,  shown  in 
Figure  836.  The  terms,  "2-3," 
"3-3,"  "5-6,"  etc.,  refer  to  the 
number  of  fruits  in  adjacent  rows, 
either  across  the  box  or  from  end  to 
end.  Packed  in  this  way,  the  face 
and  sides  show  very  few  openings. 
The  buyer  often  opens  the  package 
on  the  side,  and  he  gets  a  bad  im- 
pression if  he  sees  as  many  holes  as 
pears.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  if  the 
four-tier  pears  shown  in  Figure  83  a 
were  packed  the  3-3  pack,  the  box 
would  contain  more  pears  in  spite  of 

the  large  openings  that  would  appear  if  the  side  of  the 
box  was  removed.  The  smallest  five-tier  pack  allowed, 
but  one  that  is  not  encouraged,  contains  180  pears,  packed 
3-3  across  the  box  and  6-6  long;  the  next  pack  contains 
165  pears,  packed  5-6,  long;  the  next  150  pears,  the  rows 
5-5  long;  and  the  largest,  135  pears,  packed  4-5  long. 
Occasionally  we  find  such  a  five-tier  pack  as  that  shown  in 
Figure  84.  This  is  packed  five-tier,  as  is  shown  by  a  side 
view  of  the  box  in  Figure  85,  but  there  are  too  many  pears 


FIG.  84.  —  Pears,  Five-tier 
Pack  of  Six-tier  Grade. 


Packing  and  Grading  the  Fruit 


295 


in  the  rows;  in  other  words,  the  fruit  is  too  small  for  a  five- 
tier  pack,  and  this  package  would  be  marked  down  to  six- 
tier  by  the  inspector.  Most  of  the  pears  in  this  box  are  2J 
inches  in  diameter,  but  the  pears  of  this  variety  are  short, 
and  the  box  contains  210  pears.  This  fruit  could  have  been 
packed  six-tier,  5-6  long,  to  good  advantage.  A  3-4  pack 
is  sometimes  allowed  on  a  six-tier  pear,  but  it  gives  the 
packer  an  opportunity  to  work  in  fruit 
that  is  really  too  small.  From  the  135 
five-tier  pack  we  drop  to  the  four-tier 
packed  2-3  across  the  box  and  5-6 
long,  the  box  containing  110  pears; 
then  to  5-5  long  with  100  pears;  4-5 
with  90  pears;  and  the  largest  size,  4-4 
long  with  80  pears.  Larger  pears  are 
generally  packed  some  other  style. 
Occasionally  we  see  a  6-6  four-tier, 
the  box  containing  120  pears.  While 
such  a  pack  is  often  passed  by  the 
inspector,  it  is  better  to  work  such 
fruit  into  a  good  five-tier  pack. 

Possibly  in  a  few  cases  it  may  be 
necessary  to  vary  from  the  styles  of  packs  here  given,  in 
order  to  make  a  neat-appearing  package  with  odd-shaped 
fruit.  The  main  point  is  to  see  that  the  face  and  side  do 
not  show  large  openings.  If  pears  are  carefully  packed 
with  either  the  2-3  or  the  3-3  pack,  one  has  no  trouble 
to  secure  the  required  weight.  Growers  often  complain 
that  the  boxes  will  not  hold  fifty  pounds  of  fruit  without 
bursting  the  top  or  bottom,  but  if  they  will  drop  the  3-4 
and  the  4-4  packs,  they  will  have  no  difficulty. 


FIG.  85.  —  Side  View 
of  84. 


296  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

There  is  evidently  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  mean- 
ing of  the  terms  " four-tier/'  "five-tier,"  and  so  on,  in  dif- 
ferent fruit-growing  sections.  As  we  understand  the  word 
"tier"  as  applied  to  a  pear  pack,  it  means  a  layer  of  fruit 
in  the  box,  and  so  Jong  as  we  take  Webster's  definition,  we 
will  probably  have  to  hold  to  the  idea  that  a  four-tier  pack 
of  pears  is  one  with  four  layers  of  fruit  and  a  five-tier 
pack  one  with  five  layers  of  fruit.  It  is  unfortunate  that 
growers  cannot  agree  on  the  use  of  such  simple  terms 
as  these. 

Possibly  the  only  way  our  pear  pack  could  be  improved 
would  be  to  grade  the  fruit  a  little  more  uniformly,  that  is, 
avoid  mixing  2J-  and  2f-inch  pears  in  a  miscellaneous  five- 
tier  pack.  If  pears  are  properly  packed,  there  is  no 
trouble  determining  how  many  pears  the  box  contains, 
and  surely  the  buyer  would  appreciate  having  the  exact 
number  stamped  on  the  end  of  the  box.  The  fruit  vender 
would  then  know  how  many  pears  he  is  buying,  how  much 
he  can  afford  to  pay,  and  how  he  must  sell  them  to  make  a 
profit.  Oranges  and  lemons,  and  fancy  apples  from  some 
sections,  are  now  packed  in  this  way,  and  there  is  no  reason 
to  suppose  that  it  will  not  pay  to  pack  and  mark  pears  with 
the  same  care. 

Pears  are  wrapped  in  the  common  grade  of  paper  used 
for  wrapping  fruit,  cut  in  sizes  8x9  and  9X10,  the  smaller 
size  for  the  five-  and  six-tier  fruit.  Even  after  one  has 
learned  how,  it  requires  practice  to  become  a  good  pear 
packer.  Different  packers  wrap  in  different  ways.  One 
of  the  simplest  methods  of  wrapping,  and  also  one  of  the 
neatest,  is  to  hold  the  paper  in  the  left  hand,  rough  side 
up,  lay  the  pear  on  the  paper,  then  fold  the  lower  left-hand 


Packing  and  Grading  the  Fruit 


297 


corner  over  the  neck  of  the  pear  with  the  left  thumb,  catch 
it  with  the  first  finger  of  the  right  hand,  with  the  other 
fingers  of  this  hand  clasping  the  base  of  the  pear  give  it  a 
twist  to  the  right,  wrapping  the  paper  about  the  neck  in  a 
neat  cone-shape,  and  complete  the  process  by  gathering 
the  loose  corners  of  the  paper  in  the  right  hand  and  folding 
them  under  the  pear.  Wrapped 
in  this  way,  the  pear  will  appear 
as  shown  in  Figure  86.  Others 
wrap  more  quickly  possibly  by 
placing  the  pear  diagonally  across 
the  paper  near  the  center,  gather- 
ing the  corners  together  about  the 
base,  and  with  a  twist  to  the 
right,  wrap  the  other  loose  corners 
about  the  neck.  This  makes  a 
very  neat  wrap  when  one  learns 
how  to  make  it.  Short  stubby 
pears  are  difficult  to  wrap,  but 
one  can  generally  find  some  neat 
way.  Be  sure  to  have  paper 
large  enough.  Packers  always  wrap  with  the  rough  side 
of  the  paper  to  the  pear. 

In  packing  the  box  is  placed  in  front  of  the  packer  with 
the  farther  end  slightly  raised.  The  first  pear  is  placed 
in  one  of  the  lower  corners  of  the  box,  and  the  other  two 
pears  in  this  first  row  are  placed  according  to  the  pack. 
If  it  is  to  be  a  four-tier,  one  is  placed  in  each  corner  and  one 
in  the  center;  if  a  five-tier,  the  other  two  are  evenly  spaced 
between  the  first  pear  and  the  opposite  edge  of  the  box, 
leaving  as  much  space  between  the  last  pear  and  the  side 


FIG.  86.  —  Wrapping  Pears. 
First,  place  Pear  in  One 
Corner  of  Paper;  a  Twist 
to  the  Right  and  a  Cone- 
shaped  Package  results. 


298  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

of  the  box  as  between  pears.  With  the  first  row  of  the 
tier  in  place  with  the  butts  to  the  lower  end  of  the  box, 
the  position  of  all  other  pears  in  the  tier  is  reversed, 
the  stem  toward  the  packer  or  the  lower  end  of  the  box. 
In  the  four-tier  pack  the  second  row  will  contain  only  two 
pears,  and  they  will  be  placed  one  on  either  side  of  the 
center  pear  of  the  first  row.  The  third  row  contains  three, 
the  fourth  two,  and  so  on  until  the  opposite  end  of  the  box 
is  reached.  Here  the  last  rows  butt  against  the  other  end 
of  the  box.  Starting  again  at  the  lower  end  of  the  box, 
two  pears  are  placed  in  the  first  row  of  the  second  tier, 
one  on  either  side  of  the  center  pear  of  the  first  row  of  the 
first  tier,  and  the  tier  is  completed  as  the  first.  The  third 
and  fourth  tier  start  with  three  and  two  pears  respec- 
tively. In  this  way  the  pears  of  each  succeeding  layer  fit 
down  between  the  pears  in  the  tier  below.  In  the  five- 
tier  pack  the  only  difference  is  that  each  row  across  the 
box  contains  three  pears,  the  adjacent  rows  of  each  tier 
starting  on  opposite  sides  of  the  box,  and  the  first  row  of 
succeeding  tiers  start  on  opposite  sides  of  the  box.  To 
make  the  latter  point  plain,  suppose  the  first  pear  of  the 
first  tier  is  in  the  lower  left-hand  corner,  then  the  first  pear 
of  the  second  tier  will  be  in  the  right-hand  corner.  The 
larger  pears  are  worked  toward  the  center  of  the  box  to 
give  it  the  desired  bulge,  or  if  they  run  quite  uniform  in  size, 
the  same  result  may  be  accomplished  by  crowding  the 
pears  a  little  closer  together  in  the  center.  While  we  still 
find  some  five-tier  pears  packed  3-4,  this  pack  should  be 
avoided  whenever  possible.  Six-tier  pears  are  some- 
times packed  3-4,  and  it  is  not  objectionable  if  the  total 
number  of  pears  does  not  run  too  high. 


Packing  and  Grading  the  fruit  299 

Seckel  pears  are  usually  shipped,  without  wrapping,  in 
five-inch  peach  boxes  lined  with  the  heavy  paper  com- 
monly used  in  lining  apple  boxes.  Small  fruit  of  other 
varieties  is  sometimes  shipped  in  this  way  and  labeled 
"  pickling  pears."  The  time  may  not  be  far  distant  when 
our  fanciest  fruit  will  be  shipped  in  one  of  the  peach  boxes 
or  in  half-bushel  boxes.  Some  of  our  early  Bartletts  are 
now  shipped  in  this  way. 

Pears  are  generally  packed  by  the  piece,  five  cents  per 
box  being  the  common  wage  paid.  Most  of  the  packing  is 
done  by  girls,  who  pack  from  fifty  to  seventy-five  boxes 
per  day.  Men  who  are  expert  at  the  business  have  packed 
one  hundred  boxes  in  an  eight-hour  day;  some  possibly  do 
better. 

GRADING-LIST    OF    THE    GRAND     JUNCTION    FRUIT- 
GROWERS'  ASSOCIATION,    GRAND  JUNCTION, 
COLORADO 

Peaches 

Boxes  containing  80  peaches  or  less extra 

Boxes  containing  81  peaches  to  94 90's 

Boxes  containing  95  peaches  to  108 108's 

All  grades  must  be  free  from  worms,  all  other  defects  and  a 
tight  pack. 

Apples 

Fancy.  —  Winesap,  Grimes  Golden,  Missouri  Pippin,  Red 
Romanite,  Geniton,  and  kindred  varieties  must  be  two  and  one- 
fourth  (2J)  inches  in  diameter  and  up.  Boxes  of  Missouri  Pippins 
and  Winesap  must  not  contain  to  exceed  15  per  cent  of  2J-inch 
apples.  Eighty-five  per  cent  must  be  larger.  Jonathans,  Arkan- 
sas Black,  Ben  Davis,  Gano,  Willow  Twig,  Shackelford,  Pear- 
main,  Mammoth  Black  Twig,  Rome  Beauty,  White  Winter  Pippin, 
Mann,  Tallman  Sweet,  Dominie,  Mclntosh,  Wealthy,  Steele's  Red, 


300  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

Lawyer,  Baldwin,  Huntsman,  Spy,  Minkler,  Stark,  Smith  Cider, 
Walbridge,  Pewaukee,  Imperial,  etc.,  two  and  one-half  inches 
(2£)  in  diameter  and  up.  Absolutely  free  from  worms  and  other 
defects.  Bright  and  normal  color.  Shapely  in  form. 

Choice.  —  Should  not  be  less  than  two  and  one-fourth  (2  J) 
inches  in  diameter,  and  reasonably  free  from  worms.  In  other 
words,  only  stock  a  little  below  fancy.  Throw  away  your  trash, 
it  won't  pay  freight.  We  also  advise  using  the  diamond  pack. 

Summer  apples.  —  Pack  only  one  grade  of  summer  apples, 
"  Orchard  Run,"  but  in  making  this  pack  keep  out  all  very  small 
and  wormy  apples.  Do  not  put  grade  mark  on  the  box,  only 
your  number  and  variety. 

Pears 

Fancy.  —  Must  be  free  from  worms,  smooth  and  of  good 
shape,  gross  weight  fifty-three  pounds  or  more.  The  number 
of  tiers  must  be  stamped  on  the  box.  Four  tiers  should  measure 
from  two  and  three-fourths  (2f)  inches  up.  Five  tiers  should 
measure  from  two  and  one-fourth  (2J)  to  two  and  three-fourths 
(2f).  Six  tiers  should  measure  from  two  and  one-fourth  (2J) 
down,  but  not  so  small  but  what  they  will  make  a  good  heavy 
six-tier  pack. 

A  five-tier  pear  is  3-3  pack  and  not  over  6  long,  which  would 
make  not  over  180  pears.  Some  growers  pack  3-3  pack,  but 
7  long,  which  makes  210  pears.  This  pack  will  be  marked  and 
considered  six-tier. 

Choice.  —  This  grade  should  consist  of  pears  which  are  slightly 
scarred,  otherwise  defective  and  reasonably  free  from  worms,  not 
culls.  In  fact,  stock  that  is  only  a  little  below  the  fancy  grade. 

Plums  —  Prunes 

The  large  fancy  Hungarian,  Italian,  Botan,  Green  Gage,  Egg, 
etc.,  are  put  in  four-basket  crates,  well  filled,  gross  weight  twenty- 
eight  pounds  or  more.  Small  varieties,  Wild  Goose,  Mariana, 
Damson,  and  the  smaller  plums  of  all  varieties  in  two  and  one 
half  (2£)  inch  boxes,  well  filled,  gross  weight  eighteen  pounds  or 
more. 


Packing  and  Grading  the  Fruit  301 

Grapes 

Concords  in  eight  pound  climax  baskets  and  should  be  well 
filled.  Muscat,  Rose  Peru,  Tokay,  Purple  Damascus,  Black 
Hamburg,  in  four-basket  crates,  same  as  California,  and  must 
weigh  twenty-eight  pounds  or  more  gross.  See  rule  for  packing 
grapes. 

Cantaloupes 

Standard  crates  must  be  packed  three  rows  each  side  and  five 
melons  lengthwise,  which  will  make  45  melons  to  the  crate. 

Pony,  same  as  standard,  except  six  melons  long  which  will 
make  54  melons  to  the  crate.  Cantaloupes  must  be  carefully 
picked  at  least  once  a  day. 

PUT  TOUR  NUMBER,  VARIETY,  AND  GRADE  ON  THE  UPPER  LEFT- 
HAND  CORNER  OF  THE  BLANK  END  OF  THE  BOX. 

Any  one  who  does  not  know  when  to  pick  fruit  or  how  to  pack 
it,  should  consult  with  our  inspectors  or  their  neighbors. 

To  DEALERS:  In  ordering  peaches  by  wire  or  letter,  the  dif- 
ferent grades  will  be  known  as  extra,  fancy,  and  choice.  We 
guarantee  our  pack  to  grade  as  above,  and  in  case  they  do  not, 
please  advise  us,  giving  stencil  number. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
MARKETING  FRUIT 

MOST  people  will  no  doubt  be  surprised  to  learn  that  the 
first  successful  cooperative  fruit-growers'  marketing  asso- 
ciation in  the  West  was  established  in  Colorado.  The 
California  Fruit-growers'  Exchange  has  eclipsed  all  other 
similar  organizations  because  of  the  immense  volume  of 
business  transacted,  but  the  first  real  attempt  at  organiza- 
tion in  that  state  was  in  18931  and  the  present  organization 
was  perfected  in  1905.  The  Grand  Junction  Fruit- 
growers' Association  of  Grand  Junction,  Colorado/  had  its 
beginning  in  1891,  when  a  few  growers  agreed  to  ship  their 
crops  together  and  appointed  one  of  their  number  manager 
of  the  association  for  the  season.  This  arrangement  con- 
tinued with  varying  success  up  to  1897,  when  it  became 
apparent  that  the  increased  business,  if  no  other  cause, 
would  necessitate  employing  a  manager  by  the  year,  who 
would  devote  his  entire  time  to  the  association.  Ac- 
cordingly this  was  done,  and  the  output  has  increased 
gradually,  until  now  a  million  dollars'  worth  of  business  is 
done  a  year. 

The  association  idea  has  become  thoroughly  established 
throughout  the  entire  West,  and  at  the  present  time  there 
are  very  few  communities  where  much  fruit  is  shipped 

1  Bailey,  "  Cyclopedia  of  Agriculture." 
302 


Marketing  Fruit  303 

that  do  not  support  thriving  associations.  That  three- 
fourths  of  all  the  fruit  grown  in  the  western  states  is  mar- 
keted through  associations  would  be  a  conservative  esti- 
mate; perhaps  four-fifths  would  be  more  nearly  correct. 
Unfortunately,  however,  not  all  of  these  institutions  are 
worthy  of  the  name. 

The  number  of  fruit  and  produce  associations  in  the 
various  states  may  be  summarized  as  follows:  Colorado 
32,' Idaho  4,  Montana  1,  New  Mexico  3,  Oregon  12,  Wash- 
ington 18. 

Advantages  of  Association 

It  is  well  known  that  farmers  are  slow  to  organize  and 
that  many  of  their  attempts  have  met  with  failure.  It 
will  be  instructive,  therefore,  to  inquire  into  the  reason  for 
successful  cooperation  in  the  West,  as  well  as  to  discuss 
the  advantages  to  the  grower. 

Before  the  days  of  associations  there  was  a  time  when 
all  of  the  fruit  was  consumed  by  the  home  markets.  Those 
were  days  of  high  prices  and  of  prosperity.  Increased 
production  rapidly  followed,  and  this  necessitated  that  an 
outlet  be  found  in  the  markets  of  the  world.  High  freight 
rates,  distance  from  markets,  lack  of  business  experience, 
lack  of  reputation,  want  of  experience  in  packing,  and 
eastern  competition,  were  difficult  problems  to  face  and 
overcome.  Only  the  few  fruit-growers  with  exceptional 
business  ability,  who  could  produce  or  command  car- 
load lots,  could  hope  to  succeed,  and  for  the  small  grower 
there  was  little  chance  of  success.  Car-load  lots  must  be 
the  unit  of  shipments;  and  express  shipments,  even  to-day, 
are  out  of  question  except  to  near-by  points.  All  growers 
were  alike  at  the  mercy  of  commission  men  and  traveling 


304  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

buyers.  Under  such  conditions  there  could  be  no  such 
thing  as  uniformity  in  grades,  in  packing,  or  in  prices. 
Each  grower  was  a  law  unto  himself,  and  competition 
among  neighbors  was  the  rule.  Such  conditions  are  bad 
enough  even  in  the  vicinity  of  the  large  cities  of  the  East, 
but  when  separated  from  the  markets  by  hundreds  of 
miles,  they  soon  become  intolerable. 

The  growing  of  fruit  is  a  complex  and  exacting  business 
in  itself,  particularly  under  irrigation,  and  it  is  all  that  the 
average  grower  should  attempt.  If  he  makes  a  success  of 
orcharding,  his  time  will  usually  be  fully  occupied.  The 
association  manager  has  many  advantages  in  marketing 
over  the  grower,  some  of  which  may  be  mentioned. 

The  manager  must  have  daily  telegraphic  reports  on 
the  condition  of  the  markets.  He  often  has  a  personal 
acquaintance  with  the  buyers,  and  he  finds  it  to  his  ad- 
vantage to  make  occasional  trips  for  the  purpose,  even  to 
distant  states  He  may  also  have  a  system  of  diverting 
cars  after  they  have  been  sent  out  of  the  state,  and  thus 
avoid  a  glutted  market,  or  may  send  his  fruit  where  it  will 
sell  to  better  advantage.  The  icing  of  cars  can  also  be 
looked  after  properly.  Associations  are  often  the  means 
of  securing  lower  freight  rates,  because  the  hauling  of  sev- 
eral hundred  cars  is  an  item  worth  competing  for.  Such 
rates  are,  of  course,  open  to  all  shippers.  Buyers  often 
want  a  number  of  car-loads  of  a  certain  variety  and  are 
willing  to  pay  a  premium  if  their  wants  can  be  supplied, 
and  not  infrequently  such  sales  are  the  means  of  disposing 
of  large  quantities  of  the  inferior  varieties  or  grades.  An 
individual  is  seldom  in  position  to  take  advantage  of  such 
opportunities.  Associations  are  successful  in  maintaining 


Marketing  Fruit  305 

a  uniform  pack,  and  by  this  means  they  establish  a  reputa- 
tion for  their  goods.  Usually  the  best  grades  of  fruit  are 
sold  as  a  certain  brand.  The  brand,  which  should  be 
copyrighted,  is  sufficient  guarantee  for  the  quality,  or,  at 
least,  it  must  be  if  the  association  expects  to  gain  and  hold 
a  reputation. 

Supplies  of  various  kinds,  used  on  fruit-farms,  may 
be  bought  at  wholesale,  often  in  car-load  lots,  which  is  an 
advantage,  particularly  on  such  items  as  spray  and  box 
materials.  The  prices  to  growers  are  only  slightly  in  ex- 
cess of  actual  cost.  It  is  also  advantageous  to  keep  a  cer- 
tain amount  of  the  better  class  of  help  from  year  to  year 
and  to  furnish  them  with  employment,  so  that  a  more  or 
less  extensive  jobbing  business  may  be  conducted;  not 
only  is  a  large  quantity  of  fruit-growers'  supplies  handled, 
but  a  wholesale  business  in  other  lines  may  be  done,  de- 
pending on  the  demands  of  the  locality. 

Finally,  an  association  can  be  handled  more  economi- 
cally than  it  is  possible  for  most  individuals  to  market 
their  own  fruit,  unless  they  depend  entirely  on  the  travel- 
ing buyer,  or  resort  to  the  doubtful  expedient  of  consign- 
ing to  commission  men. 

Given  a  capable  manager  and  a  wise  board  of  directors, 
there  can  be  small  chance  of  failure  under  our  conditions. 
But  men  who  are  capable  of  handling  500  to  1500  cars 
of  fruit  at  a  good  profit  are  not  common,  and  when  one 
is  found,  every  effort  should  be  made  to  retain  him. 

When  a  capable  manager  is  found,  he  should  have  a 
salary  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  business  and  the 
responsibility  that  must  be  carried.  The  latter  item 
is  certainly  important  when  we  consider  that  he  may 


306  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

be  responsible  for  a  number  of  car-loads  of  a  very  perish- 
able product,  all  on  the  road  at  once.  Much  supervision 
on  the  part  of  the  board  of  directors,  who  usually  have 
small  knowledge  of  the  business,  only  hampers  the  mana- 
ger and  restricts  his  personality.  If  he  cannot  make 
a  success  of  the  association  in  his  own  way,  the  advice 
or  help  of  the  directors  will  be  of  little  value.  A  much 
better  plan  is  to  give  the  manager  a  fair  chance  to  work 
out  his  own  ideas,  and  then  if  he  fails,  try  another.  But 
here  is  the  cause  of  most  of  the  failures :  too  much  super- 
vision by  the  directors  and  unjust  criticism  and  fault- 
finding on  the  part  of  the  stockholders. 

A  common  source  of  discontent  is  the  rumor  that  a 
neighbor  in  another  association  has  received  a  higher 
price  for  his  produce,  or  that  an  outside  buyer  is  offering 
attractive  prices.  Unscrupulous  firms  frequently  adopt 
the  latter  method  of  getting  consignments,  only  to  swindle 
the  grower.  If  there  was  not  some  decided  advantage 
in  buying  direct  from  the  growers,  these  firms  would  not 
go  to  the  expense  of  maintaining  an  agent  in  the  field  when 
just  as  good  or  better  fruit  could  be  had  from  the  as- 
sociation. 

The  association  idea  is  no  longer  an  experiment,  and 
when  each  one  does  his  share  to  maintain  the  reputation 
of  the  fruit,  and  the  volume  of  business  is  sufficient  to 
pay  expenses,  there  is  small  chance  of  failure.  The  his- 
tory of  associations,  the  country  over,  shows  that  petty 
jealousies  and  distrust  on  the  part  of  the  members  is 
a  common  cause  of  failure. 

Growers  who  are  not  members  may  ship  through  the 
association  on  the  same  terms,  but  they  are  usually  re- 


Marketing  Fruit  307 

quired  to  pay  more  for  supplies.  All  of  the  larger  con- 
cerns require  both  members  and  non-members,  for  whom 
they  ship,  to  bring  all  their  fruit  to  the  association. 
Formerly  stockholders  were  allowed  to  sell  their  own  fruit 
by  paying  the  association  a  small  premium.  Neither 
were  objections  made  to  members  filling  orders  from 
near-by  towns.  But,  as  these  means  of  disposing  of 
fruit  are  manifestly  unfair  to  a  majority  of  the  association 
members,  they  have  come  to  be  looked  on  with  disfavor 
and  in  most  instances  are  no  longer  allowed. 

One  of  the  strong  points  in  the  association  idea  is  the 
possibility  of  securing  a  fairly  uniform  pack.  This  results 
in  better  prices,  since  buyers  have  the  assurance  that  all 
associations  strive  to  make  their  goods  as  nearly  uniform 
as  possible.  Contrary  to  the  idea  often  advanced  that 
poor  fruit  brings  as  great  a  price  as  good,  the  most  rigid 
grading  must  be  practiced,  and  the  intention  is  to  place 
each  fruit  in  its  proper  grade;  thus  the  best  grade  com- 
mands the  price  that  it  deserves,  and  the  grower  of  in- 
ferior fruit  is  fortunate  to  dispose  of  his  crop  at  all. 

Hood  River  Methods 

A  system  of  association  packing  has  been  worked  out 
in  the  Northwest,  notably  at  Hood  River,  Oregon,  that 
is  giving  good  satisfaction  under  their  conditions.  The 
association  does  all  the  packing,  but  sends  crews  of  trained 
packers  to  the  various  orchards  to  do  the  work.  An 
inspector  is  assigned  to  each  crew  of  four  packers,  and 
as  a  further  assurance  that  honest  packing  shall  be  done, 
horse-back  inspectors  are  employed.  These  men  drop 
in  on  the  various  crews  unawares,  and  thus  serve  as  a 


308  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

further  check  upon  careless  work.  The-  management 
has  gone  on  the  idea  that  the  very  best  fruit  put  up  in 
the  best  way  will  sell  itself  (Fig.  97);  and  this  has 
proved  to  be  true.  They  even  go  so  far  as  to  hold  a  pack- 
ing school  where  men  and  women  are  trained  in  the  art. 

All  fancy  apples  are  wrapped,  and  paper  is  placed  be- 
tween each  two  layers  in  the  box.  They  find  that  apples 
packed  on  their  sides  are  more  satisfactory  than  when 
placed  with  stems  up,  as  is  commonly  done.  Perhaps 
no  other  apple-growing  section  is  so  well  advertised,  and 
no  section  receives  a  higher  average  price  for  fruit. 

As  early  in  the  fall  as  estimates  can  be  made,  printed 
lists  are  made  of  the  number  of  boxes  and  grades  of  the 
various  varieties.  These  lists  are  sent  to  dealers  in  all 
parts  of  the  United  States  and  in  Europe,  and  bids  are 
invited.  The  fruit  is  struck  off  to  the  highest  bidders, 
and  if  any  remains  unsold,  lists  are  again  sent  out.  Thus 
all  of  the  fruit  is  sold  f.o.b.  Inasmuch  as  it  sells  itself, 
the  manager's  time  is  devoted  largely  to  seeing  that  the 
fruit  is  properly  picked  and  packed. 

Whether  this  method  of  packing  will  work  on  a  much 
larger  scale  remains  to  be  determined.  But  the  attention 
to  the  details  of  picking,  grading,  and  packing  may  surely 
be  studied  with  profit  by  all.  The  idea  of  building  up 
and  holding  a  reputation  to  the  point  where  fruit  sells 
itself  is  certainly  a  good  one. 

The  Hood  River  Berry  Association  has  found  that 
by  the  same  careful  attention  to  details  it  can  ship  straw- 
berries to  Chicago  at  good  profit. 

The  charge  is  often  made  that  while  these  prominent 
associations  in  Washington  and  Oregon  are  successful  in 


Marketing  Fruit  309 

putting  out  an  extremely  fancy  pack,  this  is  true  only 
of  a  comparatively  small  number  of  cars.  These  cars 
of  fancy  fruit  are  supposed  to  be  used  as  advertising 
to  promote  land  sales,  and  though  sold  at  high  prices, 
the  growers  actually  lose  money  on  such  fruit.  This,  it 
is  argued,  must  be  true,  as  such  strict  grading  results  in 
many  culls  that  can  be  marketed  only  at  low  prices. 
It  is  also  said  that  the  markets  are  flooded  with  the 
inferior  grades,  resulting  in  demoralized  prices  for  all. 
The  writers  have  investigated  these  charges  and  fail  to 
find  any  evidence  to  sustain  them,  so  far  as  the  prominent 
associations  are  concerned.  Statistics  of  fruit  shipments 
from  such  associations  as  Hood  River,  Yakima,  and  Wen- 
atchee  do  not  indicate  that  these  localities  have  been 
responsible  for  flooding  markets  with  fruit  either  good  or 
bad.  It  must  be  remembered  that  these  regions  are 
comparatively  new,  and  that  while  a  large  acreage  of 
orchard  has  been  planted,  the  shipments  are,  as  yet,  com- 
paratively small.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  as  soon  as  well- 
regulated  fruit-growers'  associations  market  the  bulk  of 
the  crop,  we  will  hear  less  about  glutted  markets  and  de- 
moralizing effects  of  inferior  grades  of  fruit. 

Methods  and  Results  in  Association  Work 

There  are  several  systems  used  by  associations  to  insure 
the  proper  packing  and  grading  of  fruit.  (1)  With  the 
older  system  the  association  does  all  the  packing,  usually 
at  their  packing  houses,  the  growers  delivering  the  fruit 
just  as  it  is  taken  from  the  trees.  Here  the  packers, 
under  the  direction  of  a  superintendent,  sort  the  fruit 
into  grades,  and  at  the  same  time  pack  it  into  boxes  or 


310  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

crates.  Should  there  be  any  culls,  they  are  returned 
to  the  grower  and  are  at  his  disposal.  Each  grower  is 
given  a  number,  which  is  used  to  designate  his  fruit 
throughout  the  season.  As  each  'box  is  packed,  it  is 
marked  with  his  number  and  the  grade.  When  the  boxes 
are  loaded  into  the  cars,  the  number  of  boxes,  the  varieties, 
and  the  various  grades  that  belong  to  any  grower  are  kept 
account  of  and  duly  recorded.  In  this  way  the  price  for 
each  box  in  any  car  is  easily  determined. 

(2)  But  when  there  is  a  large  quantity  of  fruit  to  be 
shipped,  it  is  impossible  to  pack  at  central  points.  This 
difficulty  is  commonly  met  by  allowing  the  growers  to 
assume  the  work.  With  this  arrangement  the  association 
employs  an  inspector,  whose  duty  it  is  to  inspect  each 
load  as  it  is  delivered.  This  he  does  by  opening  the 
boxes  on  the  side,  in  the  case  of  apples,  when  a  good 
estimate  of  the  contents  may  be  made.  If  the  pack  is 
satisfactory,  not  more  than  two  boxes  may  be  opened. 
If  unsatisfactory,  several  may  be  examined,  and  if  all 
run  under  the  inspector's  standard,  the  entire  load  must 
either  be  placed  in  a  lower  grade  or  be  repacked.  It  will 
be  seen  that  a  great  deal  depends  on  the  inspector,  and 
that  it  is  a  difficult  position  to  fill.  On  him  rests  the 
reputation  of  the  association,  so  that  he  must  be  entirely 
free  to  do  the  work  as  he  sees  fit.  Each  man's  fruit  is 
kept  track  of  by  numbers,  as  in  the  former  case. 

All  associations  charge  commission  on  all  sales,  usually 
5  per  cent,  to  defray  expenses.  In  case  the  packing  is 
performed  by  the  association,  an  additional  charge  is 
made  to  cover  the  cost  of  the  box  and  packing.  Any 
surplus  is,  of  course,  distributed  as  premiums  or  used  in 


Marketing  Fruit  311 

building  up  the  association.  Any  fruit-grower  may  be- 
come a  member  of  the  association  so  long  as  there  is  stock 
for  sale,  and  the  owner  of  one  share  is  entitled  to  all 
of  its  privileges.  The  number  of  shares  one  individual 
may  own  is  limited. 

The  growers  are  generally  asked  and,  in  many  instances, 
required  to  furnish  an  estimate  of  their  crop.  In  the 
smaller  associations  the  manager  sometimes  secures  this 
information  by  visiting  the  orchards  in  person.  This 
estimate  is  made  early  in  the  fall,  or  not  until  damage  by 
worms  and  other  causes  is  practically  over,  and  the  crop 
is  secure.  With  this  knowledge  in  hand  the  manager 
can  enter  into  contracts  for  delivering  certain  amounts  of 
various  varieties  or  grades. 

The  system  of  selling  has  been  radically  changed  within 
the  past  few  years.  Formerly,  practically  all  the  fruit 
was  consigned  to  commission  men,  who,  as  a  class,  are 
inclined  to  do  the  best  they  can  by  their  constituents. 
But  too  often  the  experience  has  been  unsatisfactory. 
Not  infrequently  has  it  happened  that  shipments  con- 
signed to  a  distant  city  have  been  reported  as  not  being 
up  to  grade,  or  not  in  good  condition,  so  that  the  market 
price  could  not  be  realized.  In  such  cases  although  the 
manager  may  be  certain  that  his  fruit  is  as  he  represented, 
he  is  often  unable  to  help  himself,  and  must  take  what 
he  can  get.  But  of  late  years  the  plan  of  selling  f  .o.b. 
is  being  practiced  more  extensively,  largely  due  to  the 
organized  efforts  of  the  associations.  Consignments  are 
made  only  to  well-known  firms,  and  much  of  the  fruit  is 
sold  at  auction.  The  auction  method  is  coming  more 
and  more  into  favor. 


312  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

But  even  with  these  arrangements  difficulties  arise, 
so  that  in  order  to  protect  themselves,  the  larger  associa- 
tions have  agents  at  the  more  important  distributing 
points.  It  is  the  duty  of  these  agents  or  brokers  to 
inspect  all  cars  that  come  into  their  territory,  as  near 
the  destination  as  possible,  and  thus  protect  the  association 
from  dishonest  buyers.  The  agent  also  is  on  hand  to  ad- 
just differences  that  arise  when  the  fruit  actually  reaches 
the  buyer  in  poor  condition. 

Express  shipments  are  made  only  to  comparatively 
near-by  points,  and  with  such  shipments  the  growers 
receive  exactly  what  the  fruit  brings  less  the  expressage 
and  the  association's  commission.  It  is  usually  the  early 
fruits  that  are  expressed,  but  prohibitive  rates  prevent 
any  very  large  amount  of  business  being  done  in  this 
way. 

A  well-managed  association  is  always  a  benefit  to  the 
entire  community,  because  it  builds  up  reputation  for  fruit, 
and  sustains  prices,  inasmuch  as  there  is  little  tendency, 
even  among  non-members,  to  bid  one  against  another  in 
marketing.  The  greatest  good  that  an  association  can  do 
is  not  to  protect  the  grower  from  the  buyer,  but  to  insist 
on  improved  methods  of  all  phases  of  orcharding  so  that  a 
perfect  product  may  be  secured.  There  is  never  any 
difficulty  in  selling  fruit  of  the  best  quality;  and  this 
fruit  can  be  produced  only  by  the  combined  efforts  of 
the  growers,  such  as  the  modern  association  affords. 

When  fruit  of  poor  quality  is  abundant,  as  it  usually 
is,  indifferent  packing  and  haphazard  consignments  are 
clearly  the  principal  causes  of  low  prices.  It  is  idle  to 
assume  that  prominent  associations  are  responsible  for 


Marketing  Fruit  313 

these  conditions.     They  could  not  do  business  in  this 
way  and  continue  to  give  satisfaction  to  the  growers. 

John  Moore,  manager  of  the  Grand  Junction  Fruit- 
growers' Association,  in  an  address  before  the  Utah  Horti- 
cultural Society,  sums  up  the  causes  of  the  difficulty  in 
marketing  the  crop  of  1908  in  the  following  direct  and, 
as  we  think,  conclusive  way.  His  ideas  will  apply  to  the 
general  subject  of  marketing  as  well:  — 

"Never  before  in  my  twelve  years'  experience  in  the 
fruit  business,  have  I  been  so  impressed  with  the  necessity 
of  proper  marketing  and  distributing  methods  for  the 
protection  of  the  man  who  grows  the  fruit.  This  protec- 
tion would  also  include  the  jobber.  We  are  in  an  age  of 
revolution  and  evolution,  and  the  unorganized  and  un- 
systematized  mode  of  doing  business  of  the  past  must 
give  way  to  more  modern  methods. 

"  I  am  fully  convinced  that  the  numerous  partially 
organized  and  unsystematized  institutions  which  are  at- 
tempting to  assist  the  grower  by  agreeing  to  load  their 
fruit  and  ship  it  somewhere  are  a  great  detriment  to  the 
business  and  the  growers.  Last  season,  in  my  efforts  to 
secure  reasonable  prices,  I  was  confronted  on  every  hand 
by  the  statement  from  jobbers  with  whom  I  was  attempt- 
ing to  deal,  that  they  were  being  well  supplied  with  fruit 
on  a  consignment  basis,  and  as  long  as  consignments 
could  be  secured  they  would  not  buy.  We  sold  on  either 
a  f.o.b.  or  delivered  basis,  eliminating  entirely  consign- 
ments. Now,  with  a  proper  distribution  of  the  fruits, 
there  is  no  reason  why  each  and  every  car  cannot  be  sold 
at  the  market  price,  or  put  on  the  auction  where  it  will  re- 
ceive a  square  deal  and  the  grower  paid  all  that  his  fruit 
is  worth.  Could  the  distribution  be  properly  controlled 
and  consignments  eliminated,  glutted  markets  would  be 
rare.  There  are  always,  in  nearly  every  market,  dealers 
who  will  encourage  consignments  to  their  markets,  when 


314  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

if  they  had  to  put  up  the  money  for  the  fruit,  they  would 
be  very  careful  that  an  oversupply  did  not  obtain.  This 
condition  can  be  controlled  by  the  growers,  and  if  every 
fruit-growing  locality  would  create  and  properly  conduct 
an  association  on  a  square  and  modern  basis,  I  fully  believe 
that  returns  could  be  very  materially  increased. 

"  This  would  require  an  outlay  of  some  expense  to  the 
growers,  but  at  the  same  time  would  really  be  an  invest- 
ment. If  you  knew  that  by  purchasing  a  certain  kind  of 
machine  for  twenty-five  dollars  you  could,  by  proper 
handling,  decrease  your  orchard  expenses  one  hundred 
dollars  a  year,  would  you  hesitate  to  make  the  purchase  ? 
Well,  as  an  association  is  a  machine,  each  grower  a  part 
of  that  machine,  and  if  kept  in  good  running  condition 
and  handled  by  a  man  who  knows  how,  it  will  produce 
results ;  therefore  I  claim  that  improper  marketing  was 
one  of  the  greatest  factors  affecting  the  price  of  fruit 
in  1908. 

"  During  the  past  year  the  larger  fruit-producing  sec- 
tions were  confronted  with  the  proposition  of  marketing 
the  largest  crop  ever  produced.  Georgia,  that  immense 
producer  of  peaches,  was  compelled  to  handle,  with  her 
crude  and  unsystematized  methods,  the  largest  crop  in  her 
history,  with  the  result  that  out  of  the  five  thousand  car- 
loads, about  two  thousand  were  shipped  to  one  market, 
and  the  results  to  the  growers  on  account  of  poor  distri- 
bution were  disastrous.  California  produced  nearly  twice 
as  many  cars  of  fruit  as  were  shipped  in  1907,  and  many 
other  fruit  districts  were  ill  prepared  to  properly  handle 
the  quantity  produced. 

"  The  deciduous  fruit  season  which  has  just  closed  will 
go  down  in  history  as  the  heaviest  ever  known,  yet  it  is 
my  opinion  that  the  quantity  was  not  the  prime  cause 
of  low  prices,  as  I  believe  under  normal  conditions  and 
proper  distribution,  with  careful  attention  to  high  quality, 
an  equal  production  could  be  placed  in  the  hands  of  con- 
sumers at  reasonably  good  prices  and  profit  to  the  growers. 


Marketing  Fruit  315 

"  With  increased  production  more  care  must  be  given 
to  the  quality  and  packing.  Every  car  of  inferior  fruit 
carelessly  packed  and  placed  on  the  market  will  tend  to 
decrease  the  value  of  the  fancy  stock,  and  to  such  an 
extent  that  growers  who  are  anxious  to  get  something  out 
of  inferior  fruit  will  be  the  losers  considerably  more  than 
the  profits  realized  from  such  sales." 

District  Organizations 

Now  that  local  associations  have  become  established 
institutions,  there  yet  remains  to  be  organized  a  combina- 
tion of  associations,  as  has  been  accomplished  by  the 
California  citrus  fruit-growers.  State  associations  would 
perhaps  not  meet  the  wants  of  the  inter-mountain  region 
so  well  as  district  organizations,  since  the  fruit-growing 
localities  are  widely  separated  and  their  conditions  are 
diverse.  It  is  true  that  the  managers  now  work  together 
to  some  extent,  but  they  all  agree  that  a  much  closer  union 
would  be  desirable. 

Not  only  would  our  fruit  become  better  known  and 
better  prices  result  by  such  union,  but  economy  in  many 
lines  would  be  effected.  If  one  man  could  have  super- 
vision of  the  sales  of  all  associations,  in  a  given  section, 
the  last  trace  of  local  competition  would  be  eliminated. 
The  railroads,  as  well  as  the  large  dealers,  could  be  dealt 
with  to  much  better  advantage  by  one  man  representing 
a  group  of  associations  than  by  a  number  of  men  repre- 
senting the  divided  interests  of  several.  In  the  buying 
of  supplies  one  man  could  not  only  do  the  work  economi- 
cally, but  he  would  be  able  to  secure  much  better  rates. 
The  same  line  of  argument  would  hold  for  all  phases  of 
association  management. 


316  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

The  time  is  not  yet  ripe,  perhaps,  for  such  an  organiza- 
tion, but  it  is  fast  approaching.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  the 
complete  control  of  the  market  situation,  to  which  the 
fruit-growers  of  the  western  states  are  entitled,  will  be 
realized  only  when  such  a  combination  is  effected. 

How  to  form  an  Association 

The  method  of  forming  an  association  is  simple.  The 
success  of  an  association  depends  more  on  the  manager 
than  on  all  else,  and  no  pains  should  be  spared  to  secure 
the  right  man.  The  mere  fact  that  a  man  has  been  suc- 
cessful in  selling  shoes  or  some  other  staple  commodity  is 
not  necessarily  an  indication  that  he  would  be  equally 
successful  in  association  management.  Now  that  this 
method  of  selling  fruit  has  become  firmly  established, 
there  should  be  no  difficulty  in  securing  men  who  have 
had  considerable  experience.  Above  all  the  manager 
should  be  allowed  to  conduct  the  affairs  of  the  association 
in  his  own  way,  for  if  he  knows  anything  at  all  about  such 
business,  he  will  usually  have  the  advantage  of  the  ma- 
jority of  directors.  The  following  constitution  and  by- 
laws may  be  used  as  a  guide,  and  they  will  be  found  to 
contain  all  that  is  essential. 


BY-LAWS  OF  THE  GRAND  JUNCTION  FRUIT-GROWERS' 
ASSOCIATION 


The  name  of  the  said  Association  shall  be  the  Grand  Junction 
Fruit-growers'  Association. 


Marketing  Fruit  317 


II 

The  objects  for  which  the  said  Association  is  created  are  to 
buy  and  sell  fruit,  vegetables,  hogs,  meat  stock,  and  all  the  prod- 
ucts of  Mesa  County,  both  fresh  and  manufactured;  to  erect, 
operate,  and  maintain  canning  and  packing  factories  and  com- 
mission houses;  to  manufacture  any  and  all  products  of  Mesa 
County;  to  lease,  mortgage,  and  sell  said  business,  and  to  borrow 
money  for  carrying  on  the  same,  and  to  pledge  their  property 
•Mid  franchise  for  such  purpose.  To  acquire  by  purchase,  or 
otherwise,  and  own  real  estate,  buildings,  machinery,  and  all  the 
necessary  power  and  power  plants  for  carrying  on  said  premises, 
and  to  lease,  mortgage,  and  sell  the  same. 

Ill 

The  term  of  existence  of  said  Association  shall  be  twenty 
years. 

IV 

The  capital  stock  of  the  said  Association  shall  be  twenty-five 
thousand  dollars,  divided  into  five  thousand  shares  of  five  dollars 
each. 

V 

The  number  of  Directors  of  said  Association  shall  be  seven, 
and  the  names  of  those  who  shall  manage  the  affairs  of  the  Asso- 
ciation for  the  first  year  of  its  existence  are  C.  W.  Steele,  A.  A. 
Miller,  J.  W.  Rose,  R.  W.  Shropshire,  J.  H.  Smith,  P.  A.  Rice, 
and  A.  B.  Hoyt. 

VI 

The  principal  office  of  said  Association  shall  be  kept  at  Grand 
.Junction  in  the  said  county,  and  the  principal  business  of  said 
Association  shall  be  carried  on  in  said  county  of  Mesa. 

VII 

The  stock  of  said  Association  shall  be  non-assessable. 


318  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 


VIII 

The  Directors  shall  have  power  to  make  such  prudential  By- 
Laws  as  they  may  deem  proper  for  the  management  of  the  affairs 
of  the  Association  not  inconsistent  with  the  laws  of  this  State, 
for  the  purpose  of  carrying  on  all  kinds  of  business  within  the 
objects  and  purposes  of  the  Association. 


BY-LAWS 
ARTICLE  I 

SECTION  1.  The  Board  of  Directors  provided  for  in  the  articles 
of  incorporation  of  this  Association  shall  be  elected  annually  at 
the  regular  annual  meeting  of  the  stockholders,  as  hereinafter 
provided,  and  shall  hold  their  office  until  their  successors  are 
elected  and  qualified. 

SECTION  2.  Said  Directors  shall  be  stockholders  in  said  Asso- 
ciation and  shall  be  fruit-growers  in  Grand  Valley  and  shall  be 
residents  of  Mesa  county,  Colorado. 

SECTION  3.  Any  vacancy  occurring  in  the  Board  of  Directors 
shall  be  filled  by  the  remaining  members  of  the  Board. 

ARTICLE  II 

SECTION  1.  The  Board  of  Directors  shall,  as  soon  as  may  be, 
after  their  election,  elect  a  President  and  Vice-President  from 
among  their  number,  who  shall  hold  their  offices  for  one  year,  and 
at  said  meeting  the  said  Board  shall  appoint  a  Secretary,  Treasurer, 
and  Manager,  who  shall  be  subject  to  removal  at  any  time. 

SECTION  2.  The  Secretary,  Treasurer,  and  Manager  shall  each, 
when  required  by  the  Board,  give  bond  in  such  sum  and  with 
such  security  as  the  Directors  may  require,  conditioned  on  the 
faithful  performance  of  their  duties,  and  to  turn  over  to  their 
successors  in  office  all  books,  papers,  vouchers,  money,  funds,  and 
property  of  whatsoever  kind  or  nature  belonging  to  the  Associa- 
tion, upon  the  expiration  of  their  respective  terms  of  office,  or 


Marketing  Fruit  319 

upon  their  being  removed  therefrom,  or  with  such  other  condi- 
tions as  may  be  proper. 

SECTION  3.  The  President  |hall  preside  at  all  meetings  of  the 
Directors  or  Stockholders.  He  shall  sign  as  President  all  certifi- 
cates of  stock,  and  all  other  contracts  and  other  instruments  in 
writing,  which  may  have  been  ordered  by  the  Board  of  Directors. 

SECTION  4.  The  Vice-President  shall,  in  the  absence  of  or  dis- 
ability of  the  President,  perform  his  duties. 

SECTION  5.  The  Manager  shall  have  full  charge  of  the  com- 
mercial and  shipping  department  of  the  Association.  He  shall 
receive  all  money  arising  from  the  sale  of  fruit  and  other  com- 
modities handled  by  the  Association,  and  pay  the  same  to  the 
parties  entitled  thereto,  and  render  a  true  account  thereof;  and 
he  shall  also  be  the  Treasurer  of  this  Association  and  safely  keep 
all  money  belonging  to  the  Association,  and  disburse  the  same 
under  the  direction  of  the  Board  of  Directors,  except  as  herein 
above  set  forth. 

SECTION  6.  The  Secretary  shall  keep  a  record  of  the  proceed- 
ings of  the  Board  of  Directors  and  also  of  the  meetings  of  the 
Stockholders.  He  shall  also  keep  a  book  of  blank  certificates  of 
stock,  fill  up  and  countersign  all  certificates  issued,  and  make 
the  corresponding  entries  upon  the  marginal  stub  of  each  certifi- 
cate issued.  He  shall  keep  a  stock  ledger  in  due  form,  showing 
the  number  of  shares  issued  to  and  transferred  by  any  stockholder 
and  date  of  issuance  and  transfer.  He  shall  have  charge  of  the 
corporate  seal  and  affix  the  same  to  all  instruments  requiring  a 
seal.  He  shall  keep  in  the  manner  prescribed  by  the  Board  of 
Directors  all  accounts  of  the  Association  with  its  stockholders,  in 
books  provided  for  such  purpose.  He  shall  discharge  such  other 
duties  as  pertain  to  his  office,  and  as  may  be  prescribed  by  the 
Board  of  Directors. 

SECTION  7.  These  By- Laws  may  be  amended  by  the  Board  of 
Directors  at  any  special  meeting  thereof  called  for  that  purpose, 
a  notice  of  such  proposed  amendment  being  given  in  the  call  for 
such  special  meeting. 


320  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 


ARTICLE  III 

SECTION  1.  The  regular  meetings  of  .the  Board  of  Directors 
shall  be  held  at  the  office  of  the  Company,  on  the  first  (1st)  day 
of  each  month,  except  when  the  first  day  comes  on  Sunday  or 
legal  holiday,  then  on  the  following  day. 

Special  meetings  of  the  Board  of  Directors  may  be  called  by 
the  President  when  he  may  deem  it  expedient  or  necessary,  or  by 
the  Secretary,  upon  the  request  of  any  three  members  of  said 
Board. 

SECTION  2.  A  'majority  of  the  Board  of  Directors  shall  consti- 
tute a  quorum  for  the  transaction  of  business,  but  a  less  number 
may  adjourn  from  day  to  day  upon  giving  notice  to  absent  mem- 
bers of  the  said  Board  of  such  adjournment. 

SECTION  3.    The  Board  of  Directors  shall  have  power: — • 

First.  To  call  special  meetings  of  the  stockholders  whenever 
they  deem  it  necessary,  by  publishing  a  notice  of  such  meeting 
once  a  week  for  two  weeks  next  preceding  such  meeting  in  some 
newspaper  published  in  Grand  Junction,  Colorado. 

Second.  To  appoint  and  remove  at  pleasure  all  employees 
and  agents  of  the  Association,  prescribe  their  duties,  where  the 
same  have  not  been  prescribed  by  the  By-Laws  of  the  Associa- 
tion, fix  their  compensation,  and  when  they  deem  it  necessary, 
to  require  security  for  the  faithful  performance  of  their  respective 
duties. 

Third.  To  make  such  rules  and  regulations  not  inconsistent 
with  the  laws  of  the  State  of  Colorado,  and  Articles  of  Incorpora- 
tion, or  the  By-Laws  of  the  Association,  for  the  guidance  of  the 
officers  and  the  management  of  the  affairs  of  the  Association. 

Fourth.  To  incur  such  indebtedness  as  they  may  deem  neces- 
sary for  carrying  out  the  objects  and  purposes  of  the  Association 
and  to  authorize  the  President  and  Secretary  to  make  the  note 
of  the  Association,  with  which  to  raise  money  to  pay  such  in- 
debtedness. 

SECTION  4.    It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Board  of  Directors: — • 

First.  To  be  caused  to  be  kept  a  complete  record  of  all  their 
meetings  and  acts,  and  also  the  proceedings  of  the  stockholders, 


Marketing  Fruit  321 

present  full  statements  at  the  regular  annual  meetings  of  the 
stockholders,  showing  in  detail  the  assets  and  liabilities  of  the 
Association,  and  the  condition  of  its  affairs  in  general. 

Second.  To  supervise  all  acts  of  the  officers  and  employees, 
require  the  Secretary,  Treasurer,  and  Manager  to  keep  full  and 
accurate  books  of  account  of  their  respective  business. 

ARTICLE  IV 

SECTION  1.  At  the  regular  meeting  in  the  month  of  January 
of  each  year  the  Directors  shall  declare  such  dividends  upon  the 
capital  stock,  to  all  the  stockholders  then  appearing  on  record,  as 
may  be  warranted  by  the  net  earnings  of  the  Association  for  the 
preceding  year. 

ARTICLE  V 

SECTION  1.  The  Board  of  Directors  may,  whenever  they  shall 
deem  it  necessary,  place  on  sale  so  much  of  the  capital  stock  of 
the  Association  as  may  be  necessary  to  raise  funds  for  the  pur- 
pose of  carrying  out  the  objects  and  purposes  of  the  organization 
of  the  Association,  such  stock  to  be  sold  only  upon  the  following 
conditions :  — 

First.  That  not  more  than  three  hundred  (300)  shares  thereof 
be  sold  to  any  one  person,  firm,  or  association  of  persons. 

Second.  That  such  stock  be  sold  only  to  fruit-growers  in 
Grand  Valley. 

Third.  That  such  stock  be  sold  at  not  less  than  par  value  of 
Five  Dollars  ($5)  per  share. 

ARTICLE  VI 

SECTION  1.  The  Annual  meeting  of  the  stockholders  for  the 
election  of  Directors  shall  be  held  on  the  third  (3d)  Saturday  in 
January  of  each  year,  but  if,  for  any  reason,  it  should  not  be 
held  on  such  day,  it  may  then  be  held  on  any  day  subsequent 
thereto,  as  hereinafter  provided. 

SECTION  2.  The  Board  of  Directors  shall  be  elected  by  the 
stockholders  at  the  regular  Annual  meeting.  Public  notice  of  the 
time  and  place  of  holding  such  annual  meeting  and  election  shall 

Y 


322  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

be  published  not  less  than  ten  (10)  days  previous  thereto,  in  some 
newspaper  of  general  circulation  printed  in  Grand  Junction  and 
the  said  election  shall  be  made  by  such  of  the  stockholders  as 
shall  attend  for  that  purpose,  either  in  person  or  by  proxy,  pro- 
vided a  majority  of  the  outstanding  stock  is  represented.  If  a 
majority  of  the  outstanding  stock  shall  not  be  represented,  such 
meeting  may  be  adjourned  by  the  stockholders  present  for  a 
period  not  exceeding  sixty  (60)  days.  All  elections  shall  be  by 
ballot,  and  each  stockholder  shall  be  entitled  to  as  many  votes  as 
he  or  she  owns  shares  of  stock  in  said  Association;  provided, 
however,  that  no  person  who  is  not  himself  a  stockholder  shall 
be  allowed  to  represent  by  proxy  any  stockholder  in  the  said 
Association. 

The  persons  receiving  the  greatest  number  of  votes  shall  be 
the  Directors  for  the  ensuing  year,  and  until  their  successors  are 
elected  and  qualified. 

ARTICLE  VII 

SECTION  1.  Certificates  of  stock  may  be  transferred  at  any 
time  by  the  holders  thereof,  or  by  attorney  in  fact  or  legal  repre- 
sentatives. Such  transfer  shall  be  made  by  indorsement  on  the 
certificate  of  stock  and  surrender  of  the  same;  provided,  such 
transfer  shall  not  be  valid  until  the  same  shall  have  been  noted 
in  the  proper  form  on  the  books  of  the  Association.  The  surren- 
dered certificates  shall  be  canceled  before  a  new  certificate  in 
lieu  thereof  shall  be  issued,  and  no  transfer  of  any  share  of  stock 
shall  be  valid  or  allowed  upon  the  books  of  the  Association  upon 
which  any  deferred  payments  are  due  and  unpaid,  or  which  has 
not  been  sold  and  transferred  in  accordance  with  the  provisions 
of  the  By-Laws  of  the  Association. 

SECTION  2.  Any  stockholder  desiring  to  dispose  of  his  stock  in 
said  Association  shall  deposit  the  same  with  the  Secretary  of  the 
Association,  and  the  same  shall  be  sold  by  the  said  Secretary  at 
not  less  than  par  for  account  of  such  stockholder,  within  sixty  (60) 
days  from  date  of  such  deposit,  under  the  restriction  of  Section  1, 
Article  V,  of  these  By-Laws :  provided,  that  if  the  Secretary  shall 
not  have  sold  such  stock  at  the  expiration  of  sixty  days,  then 


Marketing  Fruit  323 

such  stock  may  be  returned  to  such  stockholder,  and  be  disposed 
of  by  him,  without  restriction  or  limitation  by  the  Association. 

ARTICLE  VIII 

SECTION  1.  All  members  of  this  Association  are  required  to 
market  all  their  fruit  through  the  Association  and  bear  their  pro- 
portionate share  of  the  expenses  of  handling  the  same. 

SECTION  2.  Any  member  may  have  the  privilege  of  selling  his 
own  fruit  at  the  orchard,  but  no  sales  of  fruit  shall  be  made  to  a 
dealer  in  fruit,  or  to  any  person  who  buys  to  ship  outside  the 
county.  In  case  of  the  sale  of  the  entire  crop  of  any  particular 
fruit  or  fruits,  by  reporting  the  same  to  the  Association,  one-half 
(J)  only  of  the  regular  commission  will  be  charged. 

SECTION  3.  Any  member  having  any  grievance  or  cause  of 
complaint  as  to  treatment  of  his  fruit  by  the  Association  can 
appeal  to  the  Board  of  Directors,  whose  decision  shall  be  final. 

SECTION  4.  All  members  must  pack  their  fruit  for  shipping  in 
a  neat  and  workman-like  manner,  and  pack  the  same  in  standard- 
sized  packages,  as  adopted  and  in  general  use  by  the  Association, 
having  placed  thereon  their  name  or  number. 

ARTICLE  IX 

SECTION  1.  A  purchaser  of  stock  in  this,  the  Grand  Junction 
Fruit-growers'  Association,  shall  hereafter  receive  of  the  profits 
of  the  Association,  in  proportion  to  the  money  he  has  invested. 


CHAPTER   XIX 

FROST  INJURIES,  SECONDARY  BLOOM,  AND  FROST 
PROTECTION 

THE  value  of  knowing  what  can  be  expected  of  frosted 
bloom,  or  fruit  just  set,  and  second-crop  bloom  is  realized 
only  when  one  grasps  the  significance  of  the  early  spraying 
in  a  successful  fight  against  the  codlin-moth.  Many 
times  a  crop  of  fruit  that  would  have  brought  the  owner 
profitable  returns,  if  cared  for,  has  been  lost  because  the 
grower  at  first  thought  it  would  not  be  worth  spraying. 
Omit  the  first  spraying  in  an  orchard  bearing  a  partial 
crop,  and  it  practically  means  the  loss  of  the  crop  no 
matter  how  thorough  the  later  applications  of  poison 
may  be.  The  seasons  of  1907  and  1908  in  the  inter- 
mountain  West  afforded  excellent  opportunities  for  the 
observing  fruit-grower  to  educate  himself  on  these  points, 
but  perhaps  the  opportunity  has  passed  some  persons 
unnoticed. 

From  the  observations  of  these  two  seasons  we  may  say 
that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  state  at  just  what  tem- 
perature injury  takes  place,  for  other  factors  besides 
temperature  have  a  part  in  determining  the  extent  of 
injury.  While  much  time  was  given  to  the  collection 
of  data,  as  to  minimum  temperatures  and  amount  of 
damage  at  particular  times  and  in  particular  localities, 

324 


Frost  Injuries  and  Protection,  Secondary  Bloom  325 

the  assembled  information  leads  to  no  conclusions.  Few 
fruit-growers  have  standard  thermometers,  and  reports 
can  hardly  be  comparable;  the  temperature  varies  in 
surprisingly  small  areas  and  fluctuates  rapidly,  and 
minimum  readings  often  mean  little  so  far  as  portraying 
true  conditions  is  concerned. 

In  a  general  way,  it  may  be  said  that  little  injury  to 
fruit  or  blossoms  occurs  before  the  temperature  falls 
below  28°  and  remains  there  for  some  length  of  time. 
Peach  buds  far  enough  advanced  to  show  the  pink  in 
the  tips  have  safely  passed  through  nights  when  the 
mercury  fell  to  21°,  and  in  other  cases  a  higher  tempera- 
ture has  injured  apples  in  the  same  stage.  It  is  probable 
that  in  the  latter  case  the  freeze  was  of  longer  duration. 
Peaches  fertilized  and  large  enough  to  fill  the  "husk," 
which  surrounds  them  while  young,  have  escaped  unin- 
jured, while  the  open  bloom  on  apple  trees  not  ten  feet 
away  was  killed  outright.  One  cannot  read  the  ther- 
mometer and  tell  with  assurance  whether  the  crop  is  lost  or 
not,  but  within  twenty-four  hours  after  the  freeze  one 
who  knows  how  may  easily  estimate  the  extent  of  the 

injury. 

The  Kinds  of  Frost  Injuries 

Frost  Russet.  —  The  light  frost  often  leaves  marks  that 
the  fruit  carries  to  maturity,  an  injury  spoken  of  as  "  i 
russet."  On  the  mature  fruit  these  marks  of  early  injury 
take  various  fantastic  forms.  Often  it  appears  as  a  band 
about  the  center  of  the  fruit,  as  shown  in  Figure  87,  01  it 
may  appear  as  a  russet  area  at  either  the  calyx  or  stem  end. 
The  position  seems  to  differ  with  varieties.  That  shown 
in  the  .figure  is  Chenango  (Strawberry)  apple.  Unless 


326  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

severe,  the  markings  do  not  necessarily  injure  the  fruit, 
but  marked  fruit  can  hardly  be  graded  strictly  fancy. 
When  the  injury  is  confined  to  a  light  mark  in  the  calyx 
end,  the  fruit  is  often  allowed  to  go  into  the  fancy  pack. 
Evaporation  seems  to  take  place  rapidly  through  this 
cork,  russeted  surface,  and  fruit  like  that  shown  in  the 
figure  has  a  decided  tendency  to  wilt. 

The  russet  is  more  evenly  distributed  over  the  entire 
surface  of  pears,  a  condition  that  is  decidedly  objection- 
able in  such  clear-skinned  varieties  as 
the  Bartlett.     It  detracts  greatly  from 
their  beauty  when  ripened. 

Frost  Blisters.  —  An  injury  to  the 
foliage  commonly  called  "  frost  blister" 
is  shown  in  Figure  88.  On  close  ex- 
amination these  crinkled  leaves  show 
separation  of  the  upper  and  lower  sur- 
FIG.  87.  —  Frost  Rus-  faces,  with  numerous  cracks  on  the 
lower  side.  Their  curled  appearance 
or  their  yellowing  up  and  falling  off  in  midsummer  often 
alarms  the  fruit-grower,  who  does  not  know  the  origin  of 
the  trouble.  The  figure  shows  that  only  the  first  leaves 
are  affected,  and  while  it  may  be  a  temporary  check  to 
the  tree,  the  effect  is  not  lasting. 

Injury  to  Buds  or  Bloom.  —  Under  this  head  it  is  pro- 
posed to  discuss  fatal  and  retrievable  injury  to  buds  or 
bloom,  and  try  to  explain  what  indicates  fatality.  It 
very  often  happens  that  a  bud  is  killed  before  it  opens,  yet 
it  will  expand  and  will  shed  its  petals  as  a  normal  bloom. 
Fatal  injury  to  buds  may  be  easily  detected  by  splitting 
them  with  a  sharp  knife  and  examining  the  organs  inside. 


Frost  Injuries  and  Protection,  Secondary  Bloom  327 


A  discoloration  of  the  central  part  of  the  bud  indicates 
fatal  injury.  When  the  individual  flower-buds  are  well 
swollen,  —  open  enough  to  show  the  color  of  the  petals,  — 
the  removal  of  the  petals  will  disclose  signs  of  fatal  injury 
in  the  darkened  pistils  (the  five  central  organs  in  the  apple 
or  pear  flower  and  the 
central  organ  in  the 
peach  or  plum  bud). 
Such  buds  may  open  and 
appear  to  be  normal  to 
the  casual  observer,  but 
they  do  not  produce  fruit. 
Internal  injury  to  blos- 
soms, especially  after  fer- 
tilization takes  'place,  is 
not  always  fatal,  nor  is 
the  percentage  of  fatal- 
ity so  easily  ascertained; 
flowers  injured  to  a  cer- 
tain extent  after  fertiliz- 
ation takes  place  may 
continue  to  develop  and 
mature  fruit.  FlG"  88'  ~  Frost  Blister  of  Apple  Leaf ' 

What  interests  the  grower  is,  how  to  determine  how 
much  he  may  depend  on  bloom  so  injured.  Peach,  plum, 
or  cherry  blossoms,  frozen  to  the  extent  that  discoloration 
appears  in  the  basal  part  of  the  pistils,  seldom  if  ever  set 
fruit.  In  the  apple  the  discoloration  may  show  in  the 
minute  seed,  and  yet  the  fruit  will  develop  to  maturity, 
but  no  doubt  only  when  the  bloom  has  been  previously 
fertilized.  Blooms  of  the  apple  showing  injury  outside 


Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

the  seed  cavities  do  not  mature  fruit;  they  may  continue 
to  develop  for  some  time,  but  nearly  always  fall  before  the 
calyx  closes.  In  this  case,  fatal  injury  is  first  indicated  by 
a  yellowing  of  the  tissues  about  the  stem  end,  the  color 
appearing  in  time  to  indicate  whether  it  will  pay  to  spray. 

When  the  injury  ap- 
pears only  in  the  em- 
bryo seed,  the  fruit  may 
mature  without  seed, 
and  may  generally  be 
picked  out  at  maturity 
on  account  of  its  smaller 
size. 

Pear  bloom  may  still 
mature  fruit  when 
showing  more  injury 
than  the  apple.  The 
whole  core  cavity  may 
be  discolored  without 
fatal  results.  The  type 
of  fruit  from  such  a 

FIG.  89.  —  Abnormal  Pears,  the  Result  of     bloom       is       shown       in 

Figure  89  (upper  fruit 

attached  to  spur).  While  abnormal  in  shape,  it  has  de- 
veloped to  maturity. 

Injury  to  Young  Fruit.  — The  various  fruits  differ  in 
their  ability  to  recover  from  severe  freezing,  and  it  is 
important  that  the  grower  know  what  to  expect.  When 
injury  and  discoloration  are  confined  within  the  pit  cavity, 
tho  peach,  cherry,  apricot,  and  plum  may  continue  to  de- 
velop until  near  the  normal  ripening  period.  The  fruit 


Frost  Injuries  and  Protection,  Secondary  Bloom  329 

may  appear  to  be  normal  until  the  uninjured  specimens 
begin  to  swell  rapidly  at  the  beginning  of  the  ripening 
period,  and  then  the  injured  fruit  begins  to  fail,  show* 
gummy  exudations,  and  ripens  abnormally,  or  drops  be- 
fore ripening.  When  the  injury  is  more  extensive,  the 
fruit  rarely  shows  any  tendency  to  mature,  usually  drop- 
ping in  a  short  time. 

Apples  frozen  after  the  bloom  has  fallen  show  little 
more  tendency  to  recovery  than  does  the  bloom  itself. 
Injury  that  extends  outside  the  seed 
cavities  proves  fatal,  and  while  the  fruit  M 

may  continue  to  develop  for  some  time,         f    JtX 
the  yellow  color  of  the  flesh  at  the  stem 
end   soon   indicates    that   the  fruit  is 
doomed.     Some  growers  contend  that 
discoloration  of  the  flesh  does  not  neces- 
sarily mean  death,  but  they  base  their  _ 
opinion  on  a  hasty  examination  of  the  FIG.  oo.  —  LouKitu- 
fruit  at   the  time  of   the  freeze,    not       dinal  Section    of 

i-   •  i  ,,  Frozen       Bartlett 

realizing  what  a   small  percentage  of       pear. 
uninjured  fruit  it  takes  to  make  a  fair 
crop.     They  find  later  that  they  have  a  good  crop,  when 
they  thought  it  all  gone,  and  they  conclude  that  it  must  have 
recovered;  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  crop  undoubtedly  rep- 
resents the  uninjured  part.     Death  of  the  seeds  does  not 
necessarily  mean  death  to  the  fruit.     As  compared  with 
the  normal  specimens,  the  seedless  specimens  are  a  little 
smaller,  and  in  some  cases  we  observe  a  slightly  shortened 
axis. 

The  injured  fruit  of  the  pear,  like  the  bloom,  makes  a 
remarkable  recovery  from  frost  injury.     When  the  seeds 


330 


Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 


alone  are  injured,  the  fruit  matures  and  in  most  cases  can- 
not be  distinguished  from  the  normal  specimens.  When 
the  injury  extends  outside  the  seed  cavity,  the  fruit  may 
mature,  but  be  abnormal  in  shape.  Figure  90  shows  a 
longitudinal  section  of  a  frozen  Bartlett.  Notice  the  black 
spot,  the  deadened  core  near  the  calyx;  development  has 
taken  place  in  the  part  that  should  normally  have  been 

the  neck.  Fruit  injured  in 
this  way  may  easily  be  dis- 
tinguished by  its  square,  thick 
form.  Figure  91  shows  a 
comparison  of  a  normal  and 
frozen  Anjou  pear,  indicative 
that  the  form  of  the  pear 
which  normally  has  a  short 
neck  is  the  more  abnormal 
when  injured  by  frost.  Such 
abnormal  fruit  cannot  be  con- 
sidered fancy,  but  in  most  varieties  is  worth  saving. 

Discoloration  of  the  tissues  must  extend  well  out  toward 
the  surface  of  the  young  pear  before  it  can  be  pronounced 
dead,  but  when  frozen  to  the  extent  that  it  results  in 
blistering  of  the  skin,  it  may  be  expected  to  perish. 

Second-crop  Bloom 

The  destruction  of  the  first  crop  of  bloom  by  frost  is 
often  followed,  especially  in  the  apple  and  pear,  by  the 
throwing  out  of  a  second  crop  of  bloom;  and  the  question 
is  often  asked  what  can  be  expected  of  this  bloom.  The 
grower  is  often  at  a  loss  to  know  whether  the  trees  are 
worth  spraying  or  not. 


FIG.  91.  —  Anjou  Pears.  The 
Smaller  injured  by  Frost 
when  Young. 


Frost  Injuries  and  Protection,  Secondary  Bloom  331 


In  the  apple  we  have  three  types  of  second-crop  bloom. 
One  common  abnormal  type  of  bloom  is  that  springing 
from  the  axil  of  a  leaf  on  a  normal  spur  after  the  early 
bloom  has  been  killed  by  frost.  This  bloom  will  set  and 
mature  fruit,  provided  the  ripening  season  of  the  variety 
is  well  within  the  season  of  the  particular  locality;  fruit 
from  such  bloom  is 
usually  later  and  re- 
quires an  extension 
of  the  season  in 
which  to  'develop. 
Figure  92  shows  a 
mature  Chenango 
(Strawberry)  apple 
from  such  bloom, 
not  over  a  week 
later  in  maturing 
than  that  from 
normal  bloom.  As 
the  fruit  generally 
develops  within  a 
week  after  that 
from  the  earlier  bloom,  in  our  lower  altitudes  most  varieties 
will  mature  a  crop  from  all  late  bloom. 

Small-fruits  set  from  a  second  type  of  late  bloom,  shown 
in  Figure  93,  which  is  a  fruit-spur  forced  from  the  larger 
limbs  and  even  from  the  trunk.  While  such  bloom  often 
occurs  in  normal  years,  the  amount  is  apparently  multi- 
plied by  the  destruction  of  the  earlier  bloom.  This  type  of 
late  bloom  seems  to  terminate  growth  that  should  normally 
havebeenawatersprout;  in  fact,  the  growth  shown  in  the 


FIG.   92.  —  Mature    Chenango    from  Second- 
crop  Bloom. 


332  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

figure  as  springing  from  the  axil  of  a  leaf  below  the  fruit 
does  often  assume  the  proportions  of  a  watersprout.  Such 
bloom  will  set  and  mature  fruit,  and  is  well  worth  con- 
sidering in  connection  with  other  late  bloom. 

A  third  type  of  late  bloom  terminates  rather  long  growth 
of  the  previous  season.     On  first  starting,   these  buds 


FIG.  93.  —  From  Second-crop  Bloom  arising  from  Large  Limbs  or 
Tree  Trunks. 


would  be  taken  for  terminal  leaf-buds.  With  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  earlier  bloom  they  develop  the  normal  number 
of  flowers  carried  by  a  fruit-spur.  This  type  of  spur  is 
not  very  common,  nor  is  it  easily  distinguished  from  the 
normal  fruit-spur,  but  its  development  seems  to  depend 
on  the  loss  of  the  early  bloom,  and  it  should,  no  doubt, 
be  classed  as  abnormal.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  some 
horticultural  writings  give  the  impression  that  apples  do 
not  bear  from  axillary  fruit-buds,  such  is  a  common  occur- 


Frost  Injuries  and  Protection,  Secondary  Bloom  333 

rence  under  our  conditions.  As  these  buds  open  a  trifle 
later  than  terminal  buds  and,  as  the  development  of  the 
flowers  and  fruit  from  them  seems  to  be  augmented  by 
the  destruction  of  the  early  bloom,  they  may  be  classed 
as  second-crop  bloom.  Many  of  these  buds  produce  fruit 
when  all  the  bloom  from  normal  terminal  buds  is  killed. 
The  production  of  fruit  from  axillary  buds,  however,  is 
not  limited  to  years  when  other  bloom  is  killed.  Many 
of  our  most  productive  varieties  bear  this  way  annually. 
Figure  12  shows  a  Jonathan  twig  of  two  seasons'  growth 
bearing  seven  fancy  apples  on  wood  of  the  previous  sea- 
son's growth,  or  from  axillary  fruit-buds.  This  branch 
was  taken  from  a  twelve-year-old  tree  bearing  approxi- 
mately two  boxes  of  fruit,  all  from  either  this  type  of 
bloom  or  from  the  type  of  secondary  bloom  as  the  fruit 
shown  in  Figure  92  has  developed  from. 

In  the  pear  there  is  one  type  of  late  bloom,  that  arising 
from  the  side  of  normal  spurs.  Figure  89  pictures  a  spur 
of  the  Bartlett  pear  bearing  a  fruit  from  a  normal  bloom 
and  two  from  these  late  blooms  (two  fruits  below).  A 
close  examination  o£  the  larger  fruit  will  show  a  puckering 
about  the  calyx,  an  indication  that  the  fruit  has  been  in- 
jured-by  frost.  The  figure  shows  what  can  be  expected 
from  such  bloom.  Fruit  from  second-crop  bloom  will 
mature,  but,  while  of  normal  flavor,  such  bloom  cannot  be 
depended  on  for  fancy  fruit.  It  is  nearly  always  rough 
and  irregular.  As  with  the  apples,  some  varieties  of  pear 
throw  axillary  bloom  that  is  a  few  days  later;  but  the  de- 
velopment does  not  depend  on  the  destruction  of  the 
earlier  bloom.  Other  types  of  late  bloom  have  not  been 
observed  in  the  pear.  Unless  plentiful  late  bloom  in  the 


334  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

pear  produces  fruit  that  is  hardly  worth  the  effort  required 
to  keep  it  free  from  worms. 

Forecast  of  the  Probable  Crop 

Whether  to  spray  or  not  to  spray  for  codlin-moth  the 
grower  must  decide,  after  ascertaining  all  the  facts.  Trees 
should  be  carefully  examined,  both  top  and  bottom,  and 
a  decision  rendered  with  care;  especially  if  it  is  likely 
to  be  negative.  Remember  that  only  a  small  percentage 
of  a  heavy  crop  of  bloom  will  make  a  fair  crop  of  fruit. 
Give  the  fruit  the  benefit  of  the  doubt  and  spray  before  it 
is  too  late;  omitting  the  first  spraying  has  brought  grief 
to  many  a  box  of  fruit.  With  the  apple  especially  a  fair 
proportion  of  the  late  bloom  may  be  depended  on  to  ma- 
ture fruit,  and  if  it  is  to  be  saved,  will  necessitate  an  addi- 
tional spraying  to  supply  the  calyxes  with  poison. 

FROST    PROTECTION 

While  the  occasional  loss  of  a  fruit-crop  from  untimely 
frosts  is  considered  in  nearly  every  fruit  section  as  one  of 
the  risks  of  the  business,  the  loss  or  partial  loss  of  two  crops 
in  succession  arouses  the  fruit-grower  to  serious  specula- 
tion of  the  possibilities  of  frost-fighting.  With  a  method 
of  frost  prevention  proved  to  be  adequate  and  practicable, 
provision  for  the  protection  of  the  orchard  should  always 
be  considered  and  the  paraphernalia  regarded  as  an  indis- 
pensable adjunct  to  orchard  equipment.  The  owner  of  a 
ten-acre  orchard  thinks  nothing  of  investing  four  hundred 
dollars  in  a  spraying  machine.  He  might  spend  an  equal 
amount  for  frost  protection;  it  would  be  cheap  insurance 


Frost  Injuries  and  Protection,  Secondary  Bloom  335 

on  a  crop  valued  at  an  equal  figure  per  acre;  and  without 
such  insurance  high  prices  for  orchard  land  cannot  prevail. 
It  is  true  that  serious  injury  by  frost  may  not  occur  in 
many  years,  but  it  behooves  the  grower  to  be  prepared. 

Many  devices  and  methods  have  been  suggested  and 
tried  by  the  orchardist  in  an  attempt  to  protect  fruit  from 
damaging  late  spring  frosts.  It  is  the  purpose  here  to  set 
forth  the  merits  of  the  various  systems,  giving  opinions 
based  on  previous  publications,  personal  observations,  and 
the  experience  of  careful  and  observing  growers. 

Natural  Protection 

When  the  extent  of  the  damage  done  by  a  recent  frost 
is  the  subject  of  discussion,  there  is  no  commoner  expression 
than  that  of  surprise  at  the  "  spottedness "  of  the  freeze 
or,  in  other  words,  the  great  variation  in  amount  of  dam- 
age done  in  different  parts  of  some  very  limited  area. 
Nothing  arouses  more  contention  among  the  growers  than 
the  question  of  the  immunity  of  their  respective  localities 
from  damaging  frosts.  Rivalry  akin  to  malice  is  based  on 
differences  purely  imaginary,  for  the  escape  of  a  particular 
locality  can,  in  many  cases,  be  attributed  to  conditions 
that  are  likely  to  be  reversed  another  year.  We  have  seen 
growers  stand  about  the  exhibition  tables  at  the  county 
fair  and  with  satisfied  pride  point  out  their  exhibits  to  a 
less  fortunate  neighbor  and  tell  him  how  it  happened  that 
they  had  fruit  when  he  had  none.  They  talked  knowingly 
of  air-currents,  and  how  the  peculiar  location  of  their 
orchard  was  such  that  it  could  never  freeze  out.  And  we 
have  seen  the  same  men  one  year  later  forced  to  listen  to  a 
similar  exposition  by  the  now  more  fortunate  and  equally 


336  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

visionary  neighbor.  Something  went  wrong;  the  air-cur- 
rents failed  to  work. 

The  degree  to  which  any  locality  suffers  is,  in  many  cases, 
a  matter  of  chance.  Mountainous  sections  are  noted  for 
their  varieties  of  climate,  and  it  is  not  uncommon  to  find 
localities  differing  very  little  in  altitude  and  not  over  ten 
miles  apart,  showing  a  variation  in  season  of  blooming  of 
almost  as  many  days.  So  while  one  locality  may  be  caught 
at  a  critical  time  one  year  and  a  neighboring  locality 
escapes,  it  very  'often  happens  that  the  experiences  are 
reversed  the  following  spring.  Yet  we  know  that  there  is 
such  a  thing  as  natural  protection;  and  there  are  localities 
that  seldom  suffer  from  untimely  frosts. 

One  of  the  most  reliable  means  of  natural  protection  is 
that  furnished  by  canon  breezes.  Orchards  in  narrow  val- 
leys often  escape  injuries  from  frost,  as  the  currents  of  air 
flowing  down  from  higher  altitudes  keep  the  air  moving, 
and  thus  prevent  the  settling  of  the  colder  air.  Proximity 
to  high  bluffs  that  absorb  a  large  amount  of  heat  from  the 
sun  in  the  day  and  give  it  off  gradually  at  night  is  also 
considered  to  be  valuable  protection.  Orchards  border- 
ing on  open  areas,  as  desert  land,  are  often  only  slightly 
injured,  while  those  surrounded  by  other  orchards  suffer 
severely.  The  escape  of  the  orchard  on  the  border  is  ap- 
parently due  to  a  better  circulation  of  air.  Low  spots 
surrounded  in  the  greater  part  by  higher  elevations  are 
more  often  visited  by  untimely  frosts,  while  ridges  sur- 
rounded by  lower  levels  are  more  exempt.  These  few 
factors  account  in  part  for  the  "  spottedness "  of  frosts, 
but  there  are  some  variations  that  these  factors  will  not 
account  for.  The  grower  who  harvests  a  good  crop  one 


Frost  Injuries  and  Protection,  Secondary  Bloom  337 

year  while  his  neighbor  has  none  may  save  himself  no  little 
embarrassment,  should  fortune  turn  another  season,  by 
not  assuming  a  boastful  altitude.  And,  furthermore,  he 
must  not  be  too  sure  that  he  can  attribute  success  in  saving 
a  fruit-crop  to  some  particular  step  in  the  cultural  manage- 
ment of  the  orchard.  While  the  only  visible  difference  in 
the  management  of  two  orchards  is  that  one  grower  waters 
in  the  fall  and  the  other  does  not,  a  failure  of  one  orchard 
does  not  necessarily  mean  that  the  system  of  watering  is  at 
fault. 

Retarding  the  Blooming  Period 

Various  plans  of  retarding  the  blooming  period  have 
been  tried,  but  at  most  they  only  delay  blooming  a  few 
days,  while  the  fruit-crop  may  be  in  danger  for  as  many 
weeks.  Mulching  the  ground  about  the  trees  in  late  winter 
to  retain  the  frost  has  had  little  if  any  effect  as  far  as  re- 
tarding the  blooming  of  the  tree  is  concerned.  Experi- 
ments in  whitewashing  the  trees  from  top  to  bottom  and 
maintaining  this  coating  throughout  the  winter  and  early 
spring  have  given  varied  results,  but  in  no  case  has  the 
practice  retarded  the  blooming  season  enough  to  give 
promise  of  any  great  benefits.  Some  growers  have 
omitted  the  late  fall  watering  and  have  withheld  water 
in  the  spring  until  after  the  blooming  period,  in  fact  until 
the  trees  actually  suffered,  yet  in  the  past  two  seasons 
these  orchards  have  suffered  as  much  as  those  watered  in 
the  fall. 

The  Use  of  Water  in  fighting  Frost 

Water  has  been  used  in  various  ways  in  fighting  frost, 
but  in  most  cases  it  has  either  proved  impracticable  or 


338  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

inadequate.  While  spraying  the  plants  would  no  doubt 
prove  effective  and  practicable  in  the  case  of  the  flower-bed, 
it  would  not  be  practicable  as  a  means  of  protecting  the 
orchard.  Various  plans  have  been  employed  for  evaporat- 
ing water  into  the  air  with  the  idea  of  holding  the  dew- 
point  above  the  freezing-point,  but  in  the  dry  climates, 
where  the  dew-point  is  normally  far  below  the  freezing- 
point,  such  means  of  frost-fighting  would  avail  little. 

Irrigation,  like  smudging,  is  an  effective  method  of 
frost-fighting  when  only  a  few  degrees  of  frost  may  be  ex- 
pected, but  it  does  not  meet  the  requirements  in  most 
places.  When  the  grower  is  not  prepared  in  any  other  way 
to  protect  his  orchard,  it  may  be  worth  his  while  to  turn 
on  the  irrigation  water.  In  doing  this,  however,  he  runs 
the  risk  of  forcing  undue  growth  which  may  be  more  easily 
injured  by  later  frosts;  and  when  once  the  water  is  turned 
on,  it  generally  puts  a  stop  to  all  other  means  of  frost- 
fighting.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  work  where  irrigation- 
water  is  running.  The  orchardist  is  to  be  warned  that 
irrigation  will  not  avert  injury  from  heavy  frosts.  In  the 
case  of  the  strawberry-bed  and  garden  crops,  irrigation  is 
often  a  simple  and  efficient  means  of  protection. 

Smudging 

Fighting  frost  by  means  of  smudges  has  long  been  in  use, 
and  while  it  has  not  always  proved  effective,  it  has  many 
advocates.  The  philosophy  of  smudging  is  to  prevent  the 
radiation  of  heat  from  the  ground  by  maintaining  a  blanket 
of  smoke  over  the  area  to  be  protected.  In  other  words, 
the  idea  is  artificially  to  provide  the  protection  of  a  cloudy 
night.  This  cloud  of  smoke  is  provided  by  burning  vari- 


Frost  Injuries  and  Protection,  Secondary  Bloom  339 

ous  materials;  as,  stable  manure,  leaves,  baled  hay  or 
straw,  or  in  fact  anything  that  will  allow  of  the  blaze  being 
easily  controlled  to  give  rise  to  a  dense  smoke.  Within 
certain  limits  such  means  of  protection  is  successful,  but 
when  more  than  five  or  six  degrees  of  frost  occurs,  the 
smoke  and  the  small  amount  of  heat  given  off  by  the  burn- 
ing of  the  smudges  does  not  afford  sufficient  protection. 
Moreover,  smudge  material  is  difficult  to  secure  in  large 
quantity,  and  the  supply  too  often  gives  out  at  the  critical 
time. 

The  failure  of  smudging  under  conditions  in  which  we 
would  expect  it  to  be  successful  can  be  attributed,  no 
doubt,  to  half-hearted  work,  failure  to  begin  before  the 
danger  point  is  reached,  or  lack  of  concerted  action.  Al- 
though the  fruit  districts  of  the  inter-mountain  states,  iso- 
lated valleys  as  they  are,  seem  to  furnish  ideal  areas  under 
which  to  demonstrate  the  value  of  smudging,  it  must  be 
said  that  after  thorough  trial  under  existing  conditions 
(isolated  orchards,  extremes  of  temperature,  and  the  lack 
of  suitable  smudge  material)  it  does  not  meet  the  require- 
ments of  frost-fighting.  In  lack  of  other  protection,  how- 
ever, the  grower  should  not  give  up,  for  faithful  smudg- 
ing is  a  failure  only  in  the  case  of  an  extreme  drop  in 
temperature. 

The  fires  should  be  started  before  the  danger  point  is 
reached,  and  the  cloud  of  smoke  maintained  until  the  sun 
is  well  up,  or  until  the  temperature  rises  above  the  freez- 
ing-point. The  smoke  screens  the  frozen  plants  from  the 
sun's  rays  and  prevents  rapid  thawing  out,  which  is  as 
detrimental  as  freezing. 


340  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

Heating  the  Orchard 

Undaunted  by  the  failures  of  other  methods,  progressive 
fruit-growers  have  endeavored  to  demonstrate  that  it  is 
possible  and  practicable  to  avert  frost  injury  by  actually 
raising  the  temperature  of  the  air,  by  means  of  burning 
suitable  fuel  in  small  fires  about  the  orchard,  either  in 
small  piles  upon  the  ground  or  in  orchard  heaters  designed 
for  the  purpose.  While  many  persons  have  been  inclined 
to  doubt  the  feasibility  of  heating  "  all-out-doors,"  it  has 
been  well  demonstrated  that  fruit-crops  may  be  saved  by 
practical  means  of  heating  the  orchard  during  the  bloom- 
ing period,  even  when  the  temperature  falls  as  low  as  20°. 

This  means  of  frost-fighting  was  probably  first  tried  in 
a  large  way  in  California,  in  protecting  the  citrus  fruit- 
crops  from  frost  in  the  months  of  December,  January,  and 
February.  In  deciduous  fruit-orchards  it  was  probably 
first  tried  in  Colorado  in  the  spring  of  1908.  The  results 
were  so  encouraging  that  great  interest  has  been  aroused 
in  the  designing  and  manufacturing  of  orchard  heaters 
and  in  attempts  to  demonstrate  the  efficiency  of  the 
various  patterns.  Some  of  the  most  promising  styles  are 
shown  in  Figure  94.  The  writers  have  had  many  oppor- 
tunities to  study  the  behavior  of  these  orchard  heaters 
in  actual  tests,  and  much  interesting  information  has 
been  gathered,  which  may  prove  of  practical  value  when 
assembled. 

Fuels.  —  With  the  oil  fields  close  at  hand,  it  is  natural 
that  the  California  fruit-growers  should  favor  the  use  of 
oil  in  heating  the  orchard.  Possibly  the  only  objection 
to  its  use  in  protecting  the  citrus  fruit-crop  in  California 


FIG.  94. 


342  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

is  the  deposit  of  soot  left  on  the  almost  mature  fruit.  This 
defect  does  not  enter  into  the  discussion  in  deciduous 
fruit-growing  sections,  where  the  fires  are  needed  only 
during  the  blooming  period  or  shortly  after  the  fruit  is 
set;  practically  all  trace  of  the  deposit  disappears  before 
the  fruit  is  picked.  Even  in  California  this  objectionable 
feature  could  be  partially  overcome  by  choosing  an  oil 
burner  that  would  consume  the  fuel  more  perfectly  than 
the  one  now  commonly  used  in  the  citrus  orchards.  Cali- 
fornia growers  have  used  crude  petroleum,  which  can  be 
purchased  at  the  wells  at  a  lower  price  than  coal.  In 
many  fruit  sections  the  conditions  would  be  reversed. 

Coal  has  been  used  in  California,  but  with  rather  un- 
satisfactory results.  California  growers  have  given  out 
the  impression  that  it  is  possible  to  raise  the  temperature 
only  four  or  five  degrees  with  coal.  The  fact  that  Cali- 
fornia growers  have  tried  to  burn  coal  in  an  unsatisfactory 
burner  is  no  doubt  responsible  for  this  false  impression  as 
to  its  heating  value.  This  California  coal  burner  is  noth- 
ing more  than  an  open  wire  basket,  without  draft,  and  it 
has  been  impossible  to  burn  a  sufficient  quantity  of  coal. 
In  other  sections  several  types  of  coal  heaters  have  been 
invented,  and  after  one  season's  trial  it  is  safe  to  say  that 
with  a  satisfactory  coal  burner  it  is  possible  to  raise  the 
temperature  as  much  as  with  an  oil  burner. 

Local  conditions  will  determine  which  will  be  the  cheaper 
fuel.  With  gas  oil  or  crude  oil  delivered  at  four  and  one- 
half  cents  per  gallon,  coal  will  probably  be  no  more  ex- 
pensive at  $4.50  per  ton.  One  can  count  on  about  as 
much  heat  from  a  ton  of  coal  as  from  100  gallons  of  oil. 
With  one  year's  actual  experience  in  the  use  of  these  heat- 


Frost  Injuries  and  Protection,  Secondary  Bloom  343 

ers  it  must  be  said  that  the  oil  burners  are  by  far  the  most 
practical.  The  fuel  is  less  bulky  to  handle,  oil  heaters 
can  be  handled  with  less  help,  and  as  the  oil  heaters  may 
be  extinguished  at  any  time,  the  fuel  may  be  used  more 
economically.  It  will  require  one  man  to  care  for  each 
two  and  one-half  acres  equipped  with  coal  burners, 
while  one  man  will  tend  five  acres  equipped  with  good  oil 
burners.  It  is  often  almost  impossible  to  secure  the  help 
required  to  take  care  of  a  large  orchard  equipped  with  coal 
burners.  Five-acre  orchards  are  easily  protected  with 
these  coal  burners.  There  are  times  when  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  maintain  fires  for  only  an  hour,  and  it  is  a  great 
waste  of  fuel  to  start  a  coal  pot  for  such  a  short  period  of 
burning,  for  a  coal  burner  once  started  may  as  well  be 
allowed  to  burn  out.  Even  though  some  coal  may  be 
saved  by  turning  the  pot  over,  it  makes  very  poor  fires  after 
it  is  partially  burned.  There  are  also  many  cases  in  which 
the  coal  fires  are  started  unnecessarily,  for  they  are  started 
before  the  danger  point  is  really  reached  and  known. 
A  few  minutes'  waiting  may  have  shown  a  change  for  the 
better,  and  the  man  who  is  burning  oil  can  wait  until  the 
danger  point  is  practically  reached.  The  first  cost  of 
equipping  the  orchard  with  oil  burners  and  storage  tanks 
will  probably  be  greater  than  the  cost  of  coal  equipment. 
While  it  is  true  that  coal  may  be  used  for  other  purposes 
if  not  needed  for  protecting  the  orchard,  the  average 
grower  cannot  in  one  season  dispose  of  the  amount  he 
must  necessarily  store  for  orchard-heating  purposes.  If 
oil  is  properly  stored,  there  is  probably  less  chance  of 
loss  by  deterioration.  Coal  will  slack  if  stored  even  from 
one  year  to  another  and  will  in  time  become  undesirable 


344  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

for  orchard-heating  purposes.  Coal  containing  over  20 
per  cent  of  slack  is  not  desirable  for  burning  in  these 
heaters.  In  Colorado,  crude  oils  have  not  been  found  to 
be  the  most  satisfactory  for  burning  in  orchard  heaters> 
on  account  of  a  tendency  to  boil  over.  A  product  known 
to  the  trade  as  "gas  oil"  is  now  being  recommended  by 
the  oil  companies.  In  fact,  this  is  the  only  oil  they  will 
sell  for  orchard-heating.  While  this  grade  is  not  always 
uniform  and  will  not  always  burn  for  the  same  length  of 
time,  it  will  burn  as  long  on  the  average  as  crude  oil  and 
does  not  boil  over. 

Fuels  may  be  made  from  various  materials  as  coal  slack, 
tar,  crude  oil,  and  shavings.  These  fuels  are  now  found  on 
some  markets  and  are  quite  well  adapted  to  orchard-heat- 
ing purposes.  As  a  rule  they  are  pressed  into  cakes  which 
may  be  burned  in  piles  on  the  ground  or  in  any  of  the  coal 
burners.  Like  the  coal,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  extin- 
guish them  when  once  lighted,  and  the  fires  require  fre- 
quent stirring  to  keep  them  burning  freely. 

Cost  of  Equipment.  —  The  cost  of  equipping  the  orchard 
with  these  oil  heaters  should  not  exceed  $25  per  acre,  and 
the  cost  of  a  storage  house  for  coal  or  a  tank  or  cistern  for 
oil  should  not  exceed  $7.50  per  acre.  A  good  400-gallon 
tank  for  hauling  and  distributing  oil,  equipped  with  hose 
similar  to  the  one  shown  in  Figure  95,  may  be  had  for 
about  $50.  Local  tinners  will  quote  a  price  of  about  $30 
on  a  300-gallon  galvanized  iron  tank  furnished  with  an 
outlet  and  valve. 

Storage  of  Fuel.  —  Most  oil  heaters  will  burn  about  a 
quart  of  oil  per  hour.  Thirty  hours  should  be  about  the 
maximum  that  it  will  be  necessary  to  burn  the  heaters 


346  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

any  one  season,  and  for  this  period  of  burning  it  will  ne- 
cessitate the  storing  of  about  fifteen  barrels  of  oil  per  acre. 
From  four  to  five  tons  of  coal  per  acre  would  furnish  about 
the  same  protection  as  fifteen  barrels  of  oil.  Oil  should  be 
stored  in  fairly  tight  tanks  or  cisterns.  Cement  cisterns 
seem  to  be  the  cheapest  storage  reservoir.  Apparently 
any  cistern  that  will  hold  water  will  hold  oil.  A  good  300- 
barrel  cistern  can  be  built  on  contract  for  about  $150, 
and  if  the  grower  wishes  to  do  the  greater  part  of  the  work 
himself,  the  actual  cash  outlay  need  not  be  over  a  third  of 
this.  A  100-barrel  galvanized  iron  tank  may  be  built  for 
about  $75.  Coal  and  the  prepared  fuels  should  be  stored 
from  the  weather  to  avoid  deterioration. 

Heaters.  —  At  first  many  of  the  designers  and  manu- 
facturers of  orchard  heaters  apparently  had  the  idea  that 
any  receptacle  that  would  hold  coal  or  oil  would  make  a 
satisfactory  orchard  heater.  This  idea  did  not  last  long, 
however,  and  many  proposed  orchard  heaters  were  con- 
demned, even  before  they  had  been  tried  in  a  practical 
way;  and  after  one  year's  test  in  actually  fighting  frost, 
undesirable  features  have  been  emphasized  in  several  of 
the  manufactured  heaters,  and  the  number  of  really  useful 
kinds  has  been  still  more  reduced. 

An  oil  heater  should  be  so  constructed  and  should  hold 
so  much  oil  as  to  burn  for  the  maximum  number  of  hours 
during  any  one  night.  They  should  burn  at  least  seven 
hours  without  refilling.  Refilling  in  the  night  is  tedious 
and  expensive,  and  requires  a  great  deal  of  help.  An  oil 
burner  that  will  burn  for  this  period  must  be  of  the 
reservoir  type.  That  is,  it  must  be  so  constructed  that 
only  a  part  of  the  surface  of  the  oil  is  exposed  to  the 


Frost  Injuries  and  Protection,  Secondary  Bloom  347 

flames.  The  oil  burner  should  also  show  very  little  varia- 
tion in  the  rate  of  burning  when  full  and  when  almost 
empty,  and  it  should  be  so  constructed  that  the  gases  are 
well  mixed  with  air  in  the  process  of  burning.  This  in- 
sures better  combustion  of  the  fuel,  gives  more  heat,  less 
smoke,  and  less  soot. 

A  coal  burner  should  have  good  draft  and  an  open 
grate  so  that  the  ashes  will  fall  out  readily.  If  the  grate 
is  too  close  and  the  heater  is  not  supplied  with  side  draft, 
it  will  soon  clog  and  refuse  to  burn.  The  coal  burner 
must  also  have  capacity.  At  best  it  seems  that  it  has 
not  been  possible  to  construct  a  coal  burner  that  will 
burn  satisfactorily  for  over  four  hours  without  refilling, 
and  the  heater  that  will  hold  twenty-five  pounds  of  coal 
and  is  so  constructed  that  the  fuel  takes  fire  gradually, 
has  a  great  advantage  over  the  heater  of  small  capacity  in 
which  all  the  fuel  catches  and  burns  at  once. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  large  fires  are  liable  to 
create  upward  currents  that  will  carry  the  warm  air  far 
above  the  tree-tops  and  allow  the  colder  air  to  settle.  It 
has  been  suggested  that  probably  more  benefit  is  derived 
from  the  slight  currents  of  air  produced  by  the  burning  of 
the  small  fires  than  from  the  heat  that  is  actually  given 
off  in  the  combustion  of  the  fuel.  Fruit-growers  have 
often  given  their  experience  in  trying  to  protect  a  few 
favorite  trees  with  large  bonfires.  One  instance  comes  to 
mind  in  which  the  grower  built  large  fires  about  some 
favorite  cherry  trees.  The  fires  were  placed  as  near  as 
possible  without  danger  of  scorching  the  trees,  yet  the 
heat  was  carried  up  too  high,  and  the  cold  air  settled  and 
froze  the  crop. 


348  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

Management  of  Heaters.  —  A;t  first  thought  the  care  of 
these  heaters  may  seem  to  be  a  simple  matter,  but  there 
is  much  to  be  gained  in  knowing  just  how  to  fire  them. 
It  would  be  a  better  plan  for  the  grower  to  attempt  at 
first  to  protect  only  a  part  of  his  orchard.  And  when 
once  the  particular  make  of  heater  is  decided  upon  and 
bought,  the  grower  should  do  a  little  experimenting  on 
his  own  responsibility  and  learn  how  to  fire  them  to  the 
best  advantage.  This  is  especially  true  of  coal  burners. 

In  orchards  at  least  25  per  cent  more  heaters  should  be 
placed  around  the  borders  than  in  the  center  of  the  block. 
This  is  especially  desirable  when  low  temperatures  are- 
accompanied  by  winds.  As  the  heaters  must  remain  in 
the  apple  and  pear  orchard  during  the  spraying  season,  an 
effort  should  be  made  to  place  them  where  they  will  not 
interfere  with  the  passage  of  the  spraying  machine.  It  is 
well  to  place  the  heaters  at  some  distance  from  the  trees. 
The  flaring-up  of  oil  fires  from  the  pot  boiling  over  may 
cause  serious  injury  if  the  pots  are  placed  too  near  the 
trees.  . 

The  number  of  heaters  required  per  acre  will  depend 
on  the  heater  and  other  factors.  No  doubt  orchards 
with  trees  planted  close  together  and  large  enough  to 
meet  across  the  middles,  as  those  shown  in  Figure  96,  are 
more  easily  protected  than  those  with  the  trees  far  apart. 
It  is  doubtful  whether  any  of  the  heaters  now  manu- 
factured should  be  recommended  as  ample  protection  at 
a  rate  of  less  than  sixty  per  acre.  It  is  always  best  to 
have  ample  protection,  holding  a  number  of  the  heaters 
in  reserve;  and  should  winds  accompany  freezing  tem- 
peratures, it  is  much  more  effective  to  light  a  goodly 


350  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

number  of  heaters  on  the  windward  side  of  the  orchard 
than  an  equal  number  of  scattering  fires.  It  has  been 
observed  that  on  a  still  night  the  benefit  derived  from 
these  heaters  does  not  extend  far  outside  the  boundaries 
of  the  orchard,  and  many  times  with  a  temperature  as 
low  as  23°  the  crop  has  been  a  total  failure  within  less 
than  a  hundred  feet  of  the  last  row  of  heaters  when  a 
perfect  crop  was  saved  inside  the  heated  area. 

Oil  heaters  burning  a  quart  of  oil  per  hour  and  at  the 
rate  of  80  per  acre  should  be  ample  protection  in  fighting 
a  temperature  of  20°,  and  coal  heaters  burning  five  pounds 
of  coal  per  hour  should  afford  the  same  protection  with 
the  same  number  per  acre.  Some  of  the  larger  heaters 
consuming  more  fuel  have  been  recommended  as  sufficient 
protection  when  used  as  few  as  forty  per  acre,  but  it  has 
been  fairly  well  demonstrated  that  it  is  better  both  for 
the  complacency  of  the  men  and  sometimes  for  the  orchard 
to  have  sixty.  If  one  insists  upon  using  oil  burners  that 
will  not  go  through  the  night  without  refilling,  it  might 
be  better  to  double  the  number  of  pots  and  burn  them 
in  two  shifts.  This  would  of  course  add  to  the  expense 
of  equipment,  but  would  enable  the  grower  to  handle  a 
large  acreage  with  less  help. 

Oil  burners  may  be  filled  and  placed  in  the  orchard  at 
any  time  after  the  fruit-buds  have  advanced  far  enough 
to  be  endangered  by  sudden  drops  in  temperature.  They 
must  be  kept  well  covered  to  exclude  moisture,  for  this 
has  a  tendency  to  make  the  oil  sputter  and  boil  over. 
The  burners  are  easily  lighted  with  a  torch,  using  a  little 
waste  for  a  wick.  The  waste  may  be  thrown  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  oil,  but  it  will  light  more  readily  and  will  be 


Fruit  Injuries  and  Protection,  Secondary  Bloom  351 

surer  if  hung  on  a  wire  hook  and  only  partially  submerged 
in  oil.  Another  plan  for  lighting  without  the  wick  is  to 
carry  a  bottle  of  gasoline  in  one  hand  and  pour  a  small 
quantity  on  the  surface  of  the  oil  in  the  heater  and  touch 
it  with  the  torch;  this  is  rather  dangerous,  and  it  is  no 
work  for  children,  and  it  is  really  too  hazardous  to  be 
recommended.  When  once  the  oil  catches,  it  burns 
freely  from  the  surface.  The  burning  may  be  regulated 
by  partially  covering  the  heater  with  the  lid.  Most 
heaters  are  easily  extinguished  by  sliding  the  lid  entirely 
on. 

By  using  the  proper  refilling  receptacle  and  with  a 
little  care,  the  heaters  may  be  refilled  at  any  time  while 
burning.  It  is  best  to  use  a  regular  oil  bucket  for  this 
work.  In  refilling  in  the  daytime  a  tank  like  that  shown 
in  Figure  95  is  most  convenient.  Three  men  with  a 
good  pump  to  draw  the  oil  from  the  cistern  will  refill  the 
pots  on  twenty  acres  in  a  ten-hour  day.  The  engine  and 
the  filling  pump  on  the  spray  tank  may  be  used  for  lift- 
ing the  oil. 

Coal  burners  may  be  placed  in  the  orchard  and  filled 
at  any  time.  Should  damp  weather  precede  a  cold  wave, 
they  may  be  a  little  difficult  to  start,  but  the  covers  with 
which  they  are  provided  protect  the  contents  very  well. 
The  heaters  are  usually  charged  with  a  handful  of  kindling, 
a  little  waste  saturated  with  crude  oil  or  gas  oil,  and  from 
ten  to  twenty-five  pounds  of  coal.  Mixing  a  little  kero- 
sene with  the  heavier  oil  makes  it  possible  to  light  more 
rapidly  with  the  torch.  Dry  tree  prunings  make  very 
good  kindling  when  well  chopped  up.  Large  heaters  with 
flaring  sides  are  best  started  by  putting  the  kindling  near 


352  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

one  side  with  only  a  small  amount  of  coal  directly  over 
it;  the  fires  break  through  more  readily  and  the  coal 
does  not  all  fire  at  once.  In  refilling  all  coal  heaters  it 
is  well  to  place  the  new  coal  on  one  side  to  avoid  check- 
ing the  heat  any  more  than  necessary.  One  of  the  most 
convenient  methods  of  refilling  at  night  is  to  draw  the 
coal  to  the  orchard  in  a  wagon  or  sled,  and  as  one  man 
drives  the  team  and  fills  the  buckets,  other  men  carry 
the  coal  to  the  heaters. 

Thermometers.  —  The  grower  who  intends  to  equip  his 
orchard  with  the  best  means  of  frost  protection  will  not 
overlook  good  thermometers.  Electric  frost-alarms,  com- 
monly called  thermostats,  are  on  the  market.  They  may 
be  placed  in  the  orchard  and  connected  with  an  electric 
bell  in  the  house  and  set  to  ring  the  bell  when  the  tem- 
perature reaches  the  danger  point.  In  actual  use  these 
alarms  have  not  been  very  satisfactory,  and  many  per- 
sons who  have  tried  them  have  reached  the  conclusion 
that  they  are  not  to  be  trusted.  A  good  thermometer 
will  serve  the  purpose,  but  though  it  necessitates  having 
a  watchman,  this  is  the  safer  plan.  A  good  crop  is  worthy 
of  such  vigilance;  and  by  placing  thermometers  in  different 
parts  of  the  orchard  more  reliable  readings  are  secured. 
The  fruit-grower  should  not  rely  on  cheap  thermometers. 
Buy  tested  instruments,  and,  if  possible,  check  them  up 
with  a  good  government  thermometer. 

The  United  States  Weather  Bureau  offices  often  help 
the  fruit-grower  by  predicting  cold  waves  far  enough  in 
advance  that  the  grower  may  be  on  his  guard.  Localities 
that  are  fortunate  enough  to  have  an  office  of  the  Bureau 
in  the  immediate  vicinity  come  to  rely  on  the  official  in 


Fruit  Injuries  and  Protection,  Secondary  Bloom  353 

charge,  who  with  volunteer  help  watches  the  thermometer 
during  the  night  and  warn  the  growers  when  the  tem- 
perature reaches  the  danger  point.  Localities  not  so 
fortunately  situated  should  establish  information  head- 
quarters. There  is  much  to  be  gained  by  such  organiza- 
tion. Headquarters  may  keep  in  touch  with  various 
growers  over  the  guarded  area,  watch  the  temperature 
readings  in  different  localities,  watch  the  movements  of 
the  air-currents,  and  in  many  ways  relieve  the  grower  of 
much  anxiety.  Two  or  three  good  level-headed  men  at 
such  headquarters,  with  telephone  facilities  and  reliable 
thermometers  in  different  localities,  are  often  able  to 
predict  fluctuations  in  temperature,  reassure  men  who  are 
anxious  to  fire  and  would  thus  waste  fuel,  and  generally 
warn  them  in  time  to  be  prepared  for  sudden  drops  in 
temperature. 

Many  fruit-growers  are  at  a  loss  to  know  when  the  fires 
should  be  lighted.  Hundreds  of  dollars'  worth  of  fuel  has 
been  burned  up  needlessly  when  the  fruit  was  in  no  dan- 
ger, and  hundreds  of  dollars'  worth  of  fruit  has  been  lost 
because  the  grower  placed  the  danger  point  too  low.  It 
is  doubtful  whether  a  temperature  of  30°  will  injure  fruit 
or  buds  in  any  stage.  A  temperature  of  28°  if  of  long 
enough  duration  to  freeze  the  tissues  solid  will  kill  peaches 
in  bloom  or  after  the  fruit  is  set.  After  the  little  peaches 
have  reached  some  size  they  often  pass  through  periods 
of  lower  temperature  of  short  duration.  Peach  trees  well 
loaded  with  buds  and  far  enough  advanced  to  show  a 
slight  trace  of  pink  'have  often  escaped  with  a  good  crop 
with  a  minimum  temperature  of  22°.  Fruit-buds  of  the 
apple  and  pear  open  far  enough  to  show  the  tips  of  the 


354  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

flower-buds  are  seriously  injured  by  temperatures  lower 
than  20°.  Apple  or  pear  buds  far  enough  advanced  to 
show  the  color  at  the  tips  are  usually  only  slightly  injured 
by  temperatures  as  low  as  25°.  Apples  or  pears  in  bloom 
and  after  the  fruit  is  set  will  seldom  withstand  tempera- 
tures lower  than  28°,  if  of  long  enough  duration  to  freeze 
the  tissues  solid.  Cherries,  apricots,  and  most  of  the 
plums  will  require  about  the  same  protection  as  peaches. 
Native  plums  in  bloom  or  with  the  fruit  set  will  often 
endure  a  temperature  of  25°. 

Storing  Heaters.  —  After  the  orchard  heaters  have  been 
burned,  they  will  probably  rust  badly  if  not  well  cared  for. 
They  should  be  placed  in  attics  rather  than  in  cellars  and 
should  be  dipped  in  oil  before  storing.  Smudging  oil  will 
do  very  well  for  dipping. 


CHAPTER  XX 
ORCHARD  PESTS  AND  THEIR  CONTROL 

THE  fruit-grower  in  the  semi-arid  regions  is  fortunate 
in  having  but  few  of  the  many  orchard  diseases  to  con- 
tend with.  The  writers  are  of  the  opinion  that  this  im- 
munity to  disease,  so  far  as  the  great  majority  of  common 
troubles  is  concerned,  will  be  permanent.  We  are  con- 
firmed in  this  view  for  several  reasons,  among  which  may 
be  mentioned  this  point:  orchard  pests  are  often  spread 
from  one  locality  to  another  on  nursery  stock,  pear- 
blight  and  crown-gall  having  been  brought  to  our  or- 
chards in  this  way.  This  being  true,  it  stands  to  reason 
that  many  other  things  have  found  their  way  to  our 
orchards,  as  trees  and  plants  come  to  us  from  all  sections 
of  the  United  States.  One  can  only  conclude  that  the 
climatic  conditions  are  such  that  many  of  these  common 
pests  of  the  humid  states  will  not  thrive.  At  any  rate, 
they  are  not  found  here,  and  bordeaux  mixture,  the  stand- 
ard fungicide,  is  unknown  to  most  of  our  growers.  Four 
years  ago  a  few  leaves  attacked  by  curl  were  found  on 
each  of  six  or  eight  young  peach  trees  in  an  orchard  at 
Paonia,  Colorado.  All  affected  leaves  were  picked  from 
the  trees  for  safety,  but  it  is  scarcely  possible  that  all 
traces  of  the  disease  were  removed.  The  trees  have  been 

355 


356  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

examined  each  year  since,  but  no  further  evidence  of  curl 
has  been  discovered. 

Some  of  the  diseases  can  be  controlled  only  by  cutting 
out  the  affected  trees,  as  in  peach-yellows.  Pear-blight 
could  be  controlled  if  all  of  the  diseased  limbs  were  re- 
moved promptly,  but  this  seems  to  be  impossible  for  the 
majority  of  orchardists.  Brown-rot  of  the  stone-fruits 
has  not  as  yet  been  successfully  combated;  and  in  wet 
seasons  it  is  very  difficult  and  often  impossible  to  control 
such  common  diseases  as  apple-scab.  This  is  due  not 
only  to  the  inability  to  spray  at  the  proper  time,  or  the 
material  being  washed  off  by  the  rains,  though  these  are 
important  features.  Unfortunately,  the  copper  in  bor- 
deaux mixture  is  made  soluble  under  some  conditions, 
and  when  this  occurs,  more  damage  results  to  fruit  and 
foliage  from  the  corrosive  action  of  the  copper  than  from 
the  disease. 

The  apples  that  come  to  our  markets  from  the  humid 
states  are  more  or  less  scabby  and  often  discolored  with 
the  sooty  blotch,  and  the  peaches  are  commonly  dis- 
figured by  scab  or  some  surface-growing  mold.  Our 
growers  have  never  been  bothered  by  fungi  that  attacks 
leaves  and  fruit,  consequently  they  have  been  saved  the 
expense  of  spraying,  and  the  fruit  goes  on  the  market 
without  a  blemish.  These  are  distinct  advantages  which 
it  is  to  be  hoped  will  continue. 

We  have  a  few  diseases,  however,  and  at  least  one  of 
them,  pear-blight,  is  very  destructive.  These  are  de- 
scribed in  the  following  pages,  and  the  latest  information 
in  regard  to  their  control  is  given. 

As  in  plant  diseases,  the  insect  enemies  with  which  our 


Orchard  Pests  and  their  Control  357 

orchardists  have  to  contend  are  comparatively  few. 
Altitude  and  aridity  certainly  have  something  to  do  in 
rendering  our  orchards  immune  to  a  large  array  of  pests 
that  are  common  to  orchards  in  lower  altitudes  both  East 
and  West.  But  the  codlin-moth  and  the  green  and  the 
woolly  aphis  are  so  abundant  and  persistent  that  they 
make  up  in  a  measure  for  the  lack  in  number  of  species. 

Only  the  more  important  insects  are  included  in  the 
following  discussion.  All  of  the  information  in  regard  to 
them  has  been  abridged  from  the  numerous  publications 
of  Professor  C.  P.  Gillette,  entomologist  of  the  Colorado 
Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  term  "plant-diseases  " 
as  discussed  in  these  pages  refers  only  to  those  orchard 
troubles  that  are  caused  by  the  attacks  of  small  plants. 
While  these  plants  are  mostly  microscopic  and  low  in  the 
scale  of  development,  they  are  just  as  truly  plants  as  are 
the  trees  upon  which  they  live.  If  one  can  think  of  the 
bacteria  and  fungi  as  being  microscopic  weeds,  it  will  help 
to  an  understanding  of  what  might  otherwise  seem  mys- 
terious. It  is  difficult,  for  example,  for  the  beginner  to 
understand  how  the  death  of  blighted  pear  trees  is  due  to 
the  growth  of  small  plants  within  the  tissues  of  the  trees. 
Yet  that  such  is  the  case  has  long  been  known. 

All  persons  know  that  insect  pests  are  live  animals; 
but  not  all  are  familiar  with  the  fact  that  insects  have 
different  modes  of  feeding.  Any  one  can  see  that  cabbage- 
worms  chew  their  food  and  gradually  devour  large  areas 
of  cabbage  leaves.  But  how  about  plant-lice,  scale  insects, 
mites,  and  a  large  number  of  similar  insects?  These  pests 
are  usually  small,  and  their  feeding-habits  are  not  so 


358  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

easily  observed.  But  it  is  plain  that  they  do  not  devour 
leaves  or  bite  holes  into  fruit.  Some  of  them,  in  fact, 
remain  stationary  during  the  most  of  their  lives.  Close 
observation  will  show  that  in  place  of  jaws  this  class 
of  insects  is  provided  with  sucking  mouth-parts.  They 
must,  therefore,  pierce  the  bark,  or  epidermis,  and  suck 
the  juices  from  the  parts  on  which  they  feed.  It  is  evi- 
dent that  it  is  impossible  to  poison  such  insects.  In 
order  to  be  a  successful  orchardist,  one  must  make  a  care- 
ful study  of  orchard  pests,  as  many  of  them  require 
special  treatment. 

When  it  is  possible  to  prevent  the  spread  of  plant  dis- 
eases by  spraying,  bordeaux  mixture  has  been  almost 
universally  used.  Biting  insects  may  be  killed  by  poison- 
ing their  food;  arsenate  of  lead  has  come  to  be  the  stand- 
ard poison  for  this  purpose.  The  sucking  insects  must  be 
killed  by  some  agent  that  suffocates  or  corrodes.  Deadly 
gases  are  sometimes  employed,  but  more  commonly  some 
mixture  or  solution  is  used  that  may  be  applied  in  the 
form  of  a  spray,  such  as  the  lime-sulfur  mixture  or  the 
tobacco  decoctions.  While  good  spraying  is  always  neces- 
sary, it  is  specially  important  with  sucking  insects,  as 
each  individual  must  be  hit  by  the  spray. 

The  codlin-moth  is  sprayed  for  before  the  eggs  are  laid. 
The  larvae,  or  worms,  do  not  hatch  till  several  weeks  later, 
but  if  the  spraying  is  well  done,  the  first  mouthful  results 
in  the  death  of  the  insect.  But  as  the  sucking  insects 
cannot  be  poisoned,  it  is  no  use  to  spray  for  them  until 
they  make  their  appearance,  unless,  indeed,  the  eggs  are 
to  be  killed  by  a  winter  spray. 


Orchard  Pests  and  their  Control  359 

DISEASES    AND    INSECTS    OF   THE    APPLE 

Fungous  Diseases 

Blight  (Bacillus  amylovorus).    See  under  Pear. 

Crown -gall.  —  The  subject  of  crown-gall  is  of  vital  impor- 
tance in  the  semi-arid  country,  since  under  our  conditions  the 
organism  that  is  responsible  for  this  disease  of  fruit  trees  and 
plants  finds  congenial  surroundings  for  growth  and  distribution. 

The  so-called  galls  are  irregular  outgrowth  of  tissue  that  com- 
monly form  around  the  crown  of  a  tree  just  below  the  surface  of 
the  ground.  They  also  occur  frequently  on  the  roots,  but  are 
very  different  in  appearance  from  the  swellings  that  are  produced 
by  the  attacks  of  woolly  aphis,  which,  unfortunately,  are  also 
very  destructive. 

There  are  two  forms  of  galls,  known  as  the  soft  and  the  hard. 
They  are  much  alike  in  external  appearance,  but  differ  in  struc- 
ture. "  Hairy-root  "  is  possibly  a  distinct  disease,  but  its  effects 
are  much  the  same.  It  receives  its  name  from  the  quantity  of 
fine  roots  which  may  or  may  not  arise  from  a  gall.  All  of  these 
forms  appear  to  be  equally  destructive. 

The  galls  increase  rapidly  in  size,  when  the  conditions  are 
favorable,  and  so  interfere  with  the  processes  of  nutrition  that 
the  vigor  of  the  tree  is  greatly  impaired.  In  many  instances  the 
death  of  the  tree  is  but  a  matter  of  a  few  years.  The  point  of 
attack  being  underground,  the  infected  trees  are  commonly  un- 
noticed until  they  begin  to  fail.  This  stage  may  be  recognized 
by  the  weak  growth  and  yellow  appearance  of  the  foliage. 

This  disease  first  began  to  attract  the  attention  of  experiment 
station  workers  in  1892,  when  the  California  station  published  a 
bulletin  on  the  subject.  This  was  followed  by  a  number  of  articles 
from  different  stations,  and  in  1900  Tourney,  then  of  the  Arizona 
Experiment  Station,  published  a  bulletin  in  which  he  attempted 
to  prove  that  crown-gall  is  induced  by  attacks  of  a  slime  mold. 
His  results,  however,  have  never  been  verified,  and  the  exact 
cause  of  the  disease  is  not  yet  definitely  known. 

In  the  spring  of  1907  Smith  and  Townsend,  of  the  Depart- 


360  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

ment  of  Agriculture,  published  a  brief  account  of  their  work  with 
galls  on  the  Paris  daisy.  They  proved  that  this  particular  gall 
is  caused  by  the  attacks  of  a  bacterium,  and,  what  is  more  im- 
portant, they  found  that  when  pure  cultures  of  this  organism 
were  inoculated  into  peach  roots,  galls  were  formed  that  resemble 
closely  the  common  crown-gall. 

So  it  appears  that  we  are  at  last  to  have  the  cause  of  crown- 
gall  explained.  But  in  the  meantime  we  know  that  under  semi- 
arid  conditions  this  disease  is  often  fatal  to  all  kinds  of  orchard 
trees.  We  also  think  that  it  is  spread  in  the  orchard  from  tree 
to  tree,  although  this  has  not  been  proved.  No  remedy  has  yet 
been  suggested  which  has  any  value  in  controlling  the  disease. 
The  only  thing  that  can  be  suggested  is  to  insist  on  the  most 
rigid  inspection  of  nursery  stock,  and  all  trees  should  be  rejected 
that  show  any  traces  of  gall.  All  orchard  trees  found  to  be  dis- 
eased should  be  destroyed,  particularly  apple  trees,  as  they  rarely 
live  over  ten  years,  and  what  fruit  is  borne  is  likely  to  be  under- 
sized. 

Mildew  (Podosphcera  species).  —  A  mildew  similar  to  the  disease 
that  attacks  the  peach  is  found  occasionally  on  apple  twigs. 
This  has  not  been  serious  as  yet,  but  if  at  any  time  it  should 
need  attention,  spraying  with  bordeaux  mixture  as  outlined  for 
peach  mildew  will  be  effective.  The  young,  vigorous  twigs, 
young  trees,  and  grafts  are  most  subject  to  attack. 

Root-rots.  —  Orchardists  and  experiment  station  workers 
alike  have  been  puzzled  for  several  years  over  the  cause  of  root- 
rot  in  apple  and  pear  trees.  The  name  conveys  at  once  the 
condition  in  which  the  trees  are  found.  In  some  cases  no  injury 
is  to  be  seen  above  ground,  but  when  the  tree  dies,  it  will  be  found 
to  be  girdled  just  below  ground,  and  most  of  the  roots  are  decayed. 
In  other  cases  strips  of  dead  bark  extend  up  the  trunks  and 
often  into  the  larger  branches.  In  such  cases  the  first  indica- 
tion of  disease  is  the  appearance  on  trunks  and  branches  of  dark 
brown  spots  caused  by  the  exudation  of  sap.  As  the  disease 
progresses,  the  bark  dries  down  to  the  wood,  all  of  the  involved 
part  taking  on  the  dark  color.  Such  trees  usually  ripen  their 
foliage  early  in  the  fall,  and  the  bark  of  the  branches  has  a  pecul- 


Orchard  Pests  and  their  Control  361 

iar  reddish  cast.  Many  trees  die  in  midseason,  with  fruit  and 
foliage  clinging,  the  second  season  after  symptoms  of  trouble 
were  noticed.  The  inner  wood  of  the  branches  of  some  of  the 
affected  trees  is  dark-colored,  or  black-hearted,  a  condition  which 
has  popularly  been  supposed  to  result  from  injury  by  frost  alone. 
Another  symptom  which  seems  to  be  associated  with  this  trouble 
is  the  splitting  of  the  bark  on  the  trunks.  Such  wounds  bleed 
profusely,  and  it  may  be  that  some  of  the  excessive  bleeding 
which  sometimes  takes  place  from  wounds  made  in  pruning  may 
be  due  to  the  same  cause.  In  all  cases  the  starting  point  is  either 
at  or  below  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Fungi  may  be  responsible 
for  some  of  the  dead  trees,  but  this  has  never  been  definitely 
determined.  The  common  pear-blight  may  also  work  in  the 
roots  of  apple  and  pear  trees,  but  this  is  unusual. 

The  authors  have  spent  much  time  over  this  all  too  common 
disease,  but  they  were  unable  to  arrive  at  any  conclusions.  For- 
tunately, our  co-worker,  Dr.  W.  P.  Headden,  became  interested 
in  the  subject,  and  in  a  recent  bulletin  he  gives  the  results  of  his 
investigations.1  He  found  upon  analysis  that  the  inner  bark  and 
wood  of  affected  trees,  not  dead  trees,  contained  a  large  percent- 
age of  arsenic,  as  much  as  12.77  parts  in  a  million.  All  fruit- 
growers know  that  even  a  small  amount  of  soluble  arsenic  in  the 
soil  is  fatal  to  vegetation,  but  they  have  felt  safe  in  using  large 
quantities  of  the  various  arsenical  sprays  for  the  reason  that 
these  forms  of  arsenic  were  supposed  to  be  insoluble.  It  has 
been  the  custom  in  some  sections  to  spray  from  six  to  twelve  times 
a  season  for  the  codlin-moth,  The  appliances  were  often  crude 
in  form,  consequently  much  spray  material  was  wasted  and  was 
deposited  on  the  ground.  Naturally,  the  greatest  accumulation 
is  around  the  base  of  the  tree  where  the  injury  occurs.  Analysis 
of  soil  taken  from  near  the  base  of  trees,  to  the  depth  of  one 
foot,  shows  that  arsenic  has  accumulated  in  varying  amounts  up 
to  61.3  parts  of  arsenic  acid  in  a  million  of  soil. 

Even  such  large  amounts  of  arsenic  would  be  harmless  if  it 
remained  insoluble,  as  had  been  supposed.  Dr.  Headden  finds, 

1  Headden,    W.  P.,  "Arsenical  Poisoning  of  Fruit  Trees,"  Colorado 
Expt.  Sta.  Bui.  131,  1908. 


362  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

however,  that  the  alkali  salt  solutions,  which  are  abundant  in  all 
arid  soils,  are  solvents  of  arsenic  and  so  are  constantly  bringing 
this  extremely  poisonous  material  into  solution.  This  action  is 
of  course  greater  in  some  soils  than  in  others,  depending  on  the 
constituents  present. 

This  condition  is  indeed  serious.  We  have  no  poison  other 
than  the  arsenic  preparation  with  which  the  codlin-moth  may  be 
successfully  combated,  and  if  we  are  to  grow  apples  and  pears 
successfully,  spraying  cannot  be  dispensed  with.  In  the  bulletin 
mentioned  above  Dr.  Headden  sums  up  the  situation  as  follows : 

"  I  have  no  remedy  to  suggest  for  either  condition.  Preven- 
tive measures  are,  so  far  as  I  can  see,  our  only  recourse.  Those 
which  suggest  themselves  to  me  are:  to  remove  the  arsenic-laden 
soil  from  about  the  crown  of  the  tree  and  replace  it  with  fresh 
soil;  to  use  standard  brands  of  lead  arsenate  in  preference  to  the 
arsenite  of  lime  or  white  arsenic,' sal  soda,  and  lime;  to  use  as 
little  lead  arsenate  as  possible.  I  have  been  told  that  good  re- 
sults have  been  obtained  by  using  2£  and  even  2  pounds  of  pasty 
lead  arsenate  to  100  gallons  of  water,  but  the  spraying  must  be 
done  thoroughly.  Spray  no  oftener  than  is  absolutely  necessary. 
If  I  am  not  mistaken,  Professor  Gillette  has  found  that  95  per 
cent  of  the  effect  of  the  whole  season's  spraying  was  obtained 
by  the  first  spraying  when  thoroughly  well  done.  Some  device 
should  be  used  to  prevent  the  spray  material  from  running  down 
the  trunk  and  collecting  at  its  base,  or  it  would  be  still  better  to 
make  provision  for  gathering  the  whole  of  the  drip.  Water  rich 
in  alkalies  should  not  be  allowed  to  flow  close  enough  to  the  tree 
to  permit  of  the  deposition  of  the  alkalies  in  the  soil  about  the 
trunk  of  the  tree.  Concentrated  lye,  if  used  to  kill  woolly  aphis, 
should  not  be  applied  to  the  soil  at  the  crown  of  the  tree  or  per- 
mitted to  flow  down  and  collect  there." 

Insect  Enemies  of  Apple 

Green  Apple  Aphis  (Aphis  pomi).  —  This  is  the  common  green 
louse  that  curls  the  leaves  of  the  apple  tree.  While  primarily  a 
leaf-feeder,  this  louse  also  attacks  the  tender  tips  of  growing 
shoots,  especially  grafts  and  watersprouts.  This  insect  ranks 


Orchard  Pests  and  their  Control  363 

close  to  the  woolly  aphis  in  extent  of  injuries  to  the  apple  tree. 
It  also  attacks  the  pear,  the  thorn,  and  the  quince. 

This  louse  remains  on  the  apple,  or  closely  allied  trees,  through- 
out the  year  and  does  not  go  on  other  trees  or  vegetables.  The 
first  lice  in  the  spring  hatch  from  eggs  that  were  deposited  the 
previous  fall  on  the  twigs.  These  first  lice  hatch  a  few  days 
before  the  buds  open  and  are  ready  to  insert  their  sharp  beaks 
into  the  first  tender  green  tissue  of  the  opening  buds.  They  are 
all  females,  and  become  fully  grown  in  about  two  or  three 
weeks,  when  they  begin  giving  birth  to  living  young.  From 
this  time  on  the  lice  increase  very  rapidly  if  they  are  not  kept 
down  by  their  natural  enemies  or  the  insecticides  of  the 
orchardist. 

At  first  all  the  lice  are  wingless,  but  by  the  10th  to  the  loth 
of  May  in  the  warmer  regions,  and  about  two  weeks  later  in  the 
cooler  orchard  sections,  the  winged  lice  begin  to  appear  and  to 
fly  from  tree  to  tree  and  orchard  to  orchard  with  the  prevailing 
winds.  About  the  first  week  in  September  little  brown  wingless 
males  and  green  wingless  egg-laying  females  appear,  and  a  little 
later  the  females  begin  laying  green  eggs  that  soon  turn  black 
upon  the  apple  twigs.  The  freezing  nights  in  November  or  early 
December  kill  all  the  lice,  and  the  eggs  live  over  to  hatch  the 
following  spring. 

Treatment  for  this  insect  may  be  for  the  destruction  of  the 
eggs  and  young  lice  before  the  buds  open  in  the  spring,  or  for 
the  destruction  of  the  lice  on  the  leaves  during  the  growing  season. 
The  early  spring  is  the  more  important.  There  are  two  sprays 
that  may  be  used  with  equally  good  results  when  the  trees  are 
dormant :  — 

Lime-sulfur  mixture  or  Rex  lime-sulfur,  in  dilutions  down  to 
one  gallon  in  eight  gallons  of  water,  have  given  good  results. 

Black-leaf.  —  This  preparation  may  be  used  in  the  proportion 
of  one  gallon  in  25,  or  one  gallon  in  33  of  water. 

For  the  destruction  of  plant-lice  on  the  leaves,  spray  very 
thoroughly  and  forcefully  from  all  directions  with  Black  Leaf, 
one  part  in  70  of  water,  or  with  tobacco  decoction,  or  with  whale- 
oil  soap  solution. 


364  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

Woolly  Apple  Aphis  (Schizoneura  lanigera).  —  This  is  probably 
the  most  serious  apple  pest  in  this  region.  It  is  a  bark  feeder, 
and  it  attacks  the  roots,  the  trunk,  and  the  limbs,  but  does  not 
feed  on  the  fruit  or  foliage  to  any  extent.  This  louse  is  readily 
recognized  on  account  of  its  being  covered  with  a  white,  woolly 
secretion  which  has  suggested  its  common  name.  Upon  the 
trunk  and  the  branches  the  lice  attack  either  the  tender  bark 
about  the  scars  or  the  bark  of  tender  new  shoots.  Below  ground 
the  lice  attack  the  bark  of  roots,  particularly  of  the  smaller  roots, 
causing  warty  swellings  upon  them.  If  very  abundant,  the  roots 
are  often  completely  covered  with  these  smooth  wart-like  growths, 
which  sometimes  cause  the  roots  to  die  and  rot  off.  When  very 
abundant  on  the  rapidly  growing  twigs,  these  lice  often  produce 
abrupt  swellings  due  to  the  thickening  of  the  inner  bark.  Some- 
times these  swollen  parts  crack  open  lengthwise,  and  the  limbs 
may  be  sufficiently  injured  to  cause  them  to  die.  Severest  injury 
is  done  to  the  tops,  where  there  is  the  tenderest  and  most  rapid 
growth,  as  in  grafts  and  watersprouts. 

The  life  habits  of  this  insect  may  be  briefly  stated  as  follows: 
Early  in  spring  there  will  be  a  few  living  lice  in  protected  places 
beneath  the  bark  or  under  the  dead  bodies  of  the  lice  that  were 
killed  the  previous  fall.  There  will  also  be  a  large-  number  of 
lice  living  over  on  the  roots  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
The  lice  that  live  over  on  top  are  all  very  small.  Those  living 
over  on  the  roots  are  of  all  sizes  from  the  smallest  to  those  that 
are  fully  grown.  By  the  time  the  buds  begin  to  open,  the  lice 
that  live  over  on  the  top  will  locate  on  tender  new  bark  and  in- 
sert their  beaks  and  begin  to  suck  the  sap  of  the  tree  and  to  grow 
in  size.  At  the  same  time  a  greater  or  lesser  number  of  small 
lice  that  live  over  winter  about  the  crown  of  the  trees,  and  per- 
haps some  that  came  up  from  the  roots,  migrate  to  the  top  and 
begin  to  feed  and  grow.  These  lice  start  the  round  of  develop- 
ment for  the  year  on  the  tree-tops.  They  are  usually  first  de- 
tected by  the  fruit-grower  when  the  little  lice  have  grown  enough 
to  secrete  a  white  covering  to  their  bodies  which  makes  them 
appear  like  little  moldy  spots  upon  the  bark.  These  lice  in- 
crease very  rapidly,  so  that  by  the  middle  of  June  or  first  of  July 


Orchard  Pests  and  their  Control  365 

the  tree  may  be  very  badly  infested,  and  the  cottony  secretion 
may  be  so  heavy  as  to  hang  down  and  even  fall  from  the  bodies 
of  the  lice. 

The  lice  are  all  wingless  until  about  the  first  of  September, 
when  an  occasional  winged  louse  may  usually  be  found  upon  the 
trees.  They  leave  the  trees  where  they  develop  and  fly  to  others. 
Each  of  these  winged  lice  gives  birth  to  about  four  or  five  males 
and  as  many  females.  Before  winter  comes  on,  each  female  de- 
posits a  single  egg  and  dies.  No  one  seems  to  have  followed  this 
part  of  the  life  history  of  the  woolly  aphis  in  the  orchard.  It  is 
supposed  that  these  eggs  hatch  the  following  spring  and  start  new 
colonies. 

The  woolly  aphis  lives  on  the  roots  in  large  numbers  the  year 
round,  the  only  difference  in  the  winter  being  that  the  lice  re- 
produce very  slowly,  and  so  do  not  increase  much  in  numbers. 
The  cold  weather  seems  never  to  be  sufficient  to  kill  them  even 
in  our  coldest  climates  where  the  apple  is  grown. 

Prevention  is  nearly  always  better  than  cure.  Great  care 
should  be  taken,  therefore,  when  setting  out  a  new  orchard,  to 
prevent  the  introduction  of  this  louse.  Orchards  are  usually  in- 
fested by  the  lice  that  are  on  the  roots  of  the  nursery  trees  when 
they  are  set  out.  All  nursery  stock  should  be  thoroughly  disin- 
fected either  by  fumigation  writh  hydrocyanic  acid  gas,  or  by 
very  thorough  spraying  of  the  trees,  both  roots  and  branches, 
before  they  are  set,  with  one  of  the  remedies  mentioned  below 
for  spraying  tops. 

One  method  of  preventing  injuries  from  this  louse  is  to  have 
all  apple  trees  on  Northern  Spy  roots,  as  Northern  Spy  seems 
never  to  be  seriously  attacked. 

If  nursery  stock  is  received  with  roots  "puddled"  (covered 
with  mud),  the  purchaser  should  insist  upon  this  mud  being 
thoroughly  washed  off,  and  the  roots  treated  for  woolly  aphis,  as 
this  is  one  of  the  methods  that  the  nursery  man  has  of  covering 
up  woolly  aphis. 

To  prevent  the  spread  of  the  woolly  aphis  from  tree  to  tree 
and  orchard  to  orchard,  the  lice  should  be  well  cleaned  out  of  the 
orchard  before  the  first  week  of  September,  as  it  is  about  this 


366  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

time  when  the  winged  lice  begin  to  fly  about  to  spread  the 
species. 

Wherever  this  louse  can  be  reached  by  sprays,  it  may  be  de- 
stroyed like  other  plant-lice,  but  the  spray  must  be  applied  with 
sufficient  force  to  remove  or  penetrate  the  woolly  covering. 
There  are  several  spray  materials  that  we  have  found  to  be  en- 
tirely successful  when  thoroughly  applied  to  this  insect. 

Black-leaf  is,  all  things  considered,  by  far  the  best  spray  for 
plant-lice  that  has  yet  been  introduced.  It  gives  no  better  re- 
sults than  kerosene  emulsion  when  properly  made,  but  the  diffi- 
culty our  growers  experience  in  making  a  good  emulsion  with  the 
universal  alkaline  water  makes  its  use  almost  prohibitive.  At 
any  rate,  very  few  growers  attempt  to  make  it.  Black  Leaf  is  a 
tobacco  decoction  which  was  originally  manufactured  as  a  sheep 
dip.  It  has  been  given  a  thorough  test  by  many  orchardists, 
and  has  given  universal  satisfaction.  It  is  used  in  the  propor- 
tion of  one  gallon  to  65  or  70  gallons  of  water. 

So  far,  the  remedies  mentioned  have  been  for  summer  treat- 
ments, when  the  bodies  of  the  lice  are  more  or  less  covered  with 
the  waxy  secretion.  We  think  the  best  time  to  get  results  in  the 
treatment  of  this  louse  is  late  in  the  winter,  or  early  in  spring 
before  the  buds  open.  This  is  not  because  the  lice  find  protec- 
tion from  the  opening  buds,  but  because  by  the  time  the  buds 
have  opened,  the  lice  have  their  bodies  more  or  less  covered  by 
waxy  secretions  that  protect  them  to  some  extent  from  the  effects 
of  the  insecticides. 

Many  orchardists  have  found  that  when  they  used  the  lime- 
sulfur  mixture  for  the  destruction  of  the  eggs  of  the  green  apple 
aphis,  they  largely  freed  the  trees  from  woolly  aphis  at  the  same 
time. 

The  following  formulae  have  been  found  to  be  reliable: — • 

Lime  15  pounds,  sulfur  15  pounds,  water  30  gallons; 
Lime  15  pounds,  sulfur  15  pounds,  water  45  gallons; 
Rex  lime-sulfur  1  gallon,  water  7  gallons,  lump  lime  2  pounds. 

We  have  no  doubt  that  the  kerosene  emulsion,  the  tobacco 
sprays,  and  the  whale-oil  soaps  could  also  be  used  successfully  as 


Orchard  Pests  and  their  Control  367 

early  spring  sprays  for  the  destruction  of  the  over-winter  lice  on 
the  tree- tops,  although  we  have  not  tested  them  in  that  way. 
As  they  are  not  as  successful  for  the  destruction  of  the  eggs  of 
the  green  apple  aphis,  and  as  the  orchardist  is  likely  to  want  to 
destroy  both  of  these  lice  at  the  same  time  if  possible,  it  is  prob- 
able that  the  lime-sulfur  sprays  will  become  most  popular  for 
early  spring  applications. 

To  secure  best  results  on  the  woolly  aphis,  the  spring  applica- 
tion should  be  made  fully  a  week  or  ten  days  before  the  apple 
buds  begin  to  open  at  all,  and  the  trunk  and  crown  of  the  tree 
should  be  thoroughly  drenched.  Then  as  a  final  act  for  best 
results,  put  Tanglefoot  bands  about  the  trunks  of  the  trees  so 
that  the  lice  at  the  roots  cannot  migrate  to  the  top. 

In  recent  experiments  large  numbers  of  Tanglefoot  bands 
have  been  used.  This  material  is  put  out  by  the  O.  and  W. 
Thum  Co.,  Grand  Rapids,  Michigan,  and  is  the  sticky  material 
of  the  Tanglefoot  fly-paper.  When  at  all  abundant  upon  the 
trees,  the  newly  born  lice  are  much  inclined  to  travel,  and  it  is 
often  astonishing  to  see  the  number  of  lice  that  will  be  captured 
in  these  bands.  On  the  7th  of  June,  1907,  it  was  estimated  that 
bands  that  had  been  on  since  the  preceding  fall  had  as  many  as 
100,000  lice  each  in  many  cases.  The  bands  remain  fresh  for 
several  months  and  may  be  quickly  freshened  by  rubbing  a  paddle 
over  them,  if  they  become  filled  with  insects  and  dirt. 

From  observations  recently  made  the  indications  are  that 
Tanglefoot  will  seriously  injure  trees  if  applied  directly  to  the 
trunks.  A  better  way  is  to  put  a  band  of  stout  paper  around 
the  trunk  and  then  put  the  material  upon  that.  A  light  band  of 
cheap  cotton  batting  under  the  paper  will  prevent  any  lice  from 
passing  under. 

The  common  notion  that  the  woolly  aphis  may  be  killed  by 
heavy  irrigation  in  winter  is  an  error.  It  would  be  impossible  to 
keep  a  sufficient  amount  of  water  in  the  soil  long  enough  to  bring 
about  this  result  without  doing  serious  injury  to  the  trees. 

Brown  Mite  (Bryobia  species).  —  The  brown  or  clover  mite  is 
extremely  small,  and  its  presence  is  usually  first  detected  by  the 
faded,  sickly  appearance  of  the  apple  foliage.  The  trees  have 


368  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

the  appearance  of  suffering  for  water.  The  mites  feed  on  the 
leaves,  but  deposit  their  red  eggs  on  trunk  and  limbs.  When 
very  abundant,  the  eggs  give  a  red  color  to  the  bark,  an  effect 
that  is  more  often  noticed  during  winter. 

Mites  are  found  on  nearly  all  tree-fruits  and  on  small-fruits  as 
well.  They  are  sometimes  particularly  destructive  to  the  red 
raspberry. 

This  insect  is  best  combated  in  the  egg  stage  at  any  time  in 
winter.  For  this  purpose  the  lime-sulfur  mixture  or  whale-oil 
soap,  quadruple  strength,  may  be  used.  If  it  becomes  necessary 
to  spray  while  the  leaves  are  on  the  trees,  use  whale-oil  soap  or 
Black  Leaf  of  ordinary  strengths. 

Codlin-moth  (Carpocapsa  pomonella'). — Flesh-colored  larvae 
eating  into  the  fruit  and  causing  wormy  apples.  The  first  brood 
of  larvae  (worms)  begin  eating  into  the  fruit  when  early  apples 
are  about  an  inch  in  diameter.  This  brood  is  not  very  numerous, 
but  it  develops  a  second  brood  later  in  summer  which  is  very 
much  more  numerous. 

A  good  brand  of  arsenate  of  lead  is  the  only  poison  that  is 
worth  considering,  although  other  forms  of  arsenates  may  be  used. 

The  methods  of  spraying  for  the  codlin-moth  have  changed 
rapidly  in  recent  years.  Formerly  the  trees  were  often  sprayed 
eight  and  ten  times  a  season,  but  in  spite  of  this  a  large  per- 
centage of  wormy  apples  was  the  rule.  Growers  who  followed 
this  practice  failed  to  appreciate  the  fact  that  about  three-fourths 
of  the  first  brood  of  worms  enter  the  apples  at  the  calyx.  This 
is  where  the  importance  of  filling  each  calyx-cup  with  poison 
comes  in.  If  all  of  the  first  brood  could  be  killed,  there  would 
be  no  second  brood  and  consequently  no  worms  late  in  the  sum- 
mer, when  the  greatest  damage  occurs.  Many  orchardists  appre- 
ciate this  fact,  and  so  devote  all  their  energies  to  applying  the  first 
spray  at  the  proper  time  and  in  a  thorough  manner.  This  is  a 
job  that  cannot  be  neglected.  As  soon  as  the  petals  have  mostly 
fallen,  spraying  should  be  begun,  and  it  must  be  persistently  fol- 
lowed. The  calyxes  remain  open  for  only  about  six  or  eight  days, 
and  after  this  the  spraying  is  practically  useless  for  the  first  brood 
of  worms.  If  a  second  application  is  thought  desirable,  it  should 


Orchard  Pests  and  their  Control  369 

be  given  about  thirty  days  later.  Some  of  our  progressive  growers 
are  now  relying  on  the  first  spraying,  performed  at  just  the  right 
time  and  applied  in  a  thorough  manner,  and  are  meeting  with 
good  success. 

Since  we  now  know  that  trees  may  be  poisoned  by  arsenic  as 
a  result  of  spraying,  it  is  very  important  that  all  persons  should 
spray  as  few  times  as  possible  and  that  the  mixture  should  be  as 
weak  as  will  do  effective  work. 

Advance  has  been  made  also  in  the  amount  of  arsenic  re- 
quired. Formerly  many  growers  thought  that  if  a  little  was 
good,  much  more  would  be  better,  and  many  used  as  much  as 
eight  and  ten  pounds  of  poison  to  one  hundred  gallons  of  water. 
Melander  has  recently  found. that  two  pounds  of  poison  to  one 
hundred  gallons  is  sufficient  to  do  effective  work  under  Wash- 
ington conditions.  Consequently  we  think  that  three  pounds  to 
each  one  hundred  gallons  is  the  most  that  should  be  recommended. 

Traps  in  the  form  of  cloth  bands  around  the  trunks  for  catch- 
ing the  larvae  are  of  considerable  service  if  properly  attended  to. 
But  when  one  has  learned  to  spray  most  effectively,  it  is  no  longer 
worth  while  to  use  bands.  Lights  to  trap  the  moths  are  value- 
less. The  doors  and  windows  of  cellars  and  storage  houses  should 
be  screened,  as  many  moths  develop  from  the  worms  in  infested 
fruit. 

Clean  culture,  and  especially  the  stirring  of  the  soil  about  the 
trunks  of  the  trees,  will  prevent  the  worms  from  successfully 
undergoing  their  transformations  under  clods  and  about  the 
crowns. 

One  should  have  outfits  enough  to  complete  the  first  spraying 
within  eight  days  from  the  time  it  is  begun;  or  if  one  has  varieties 
that  bloom  at  different  times,  arrange  the  work  so  that  none  of 
the  trees  will  have  to  wait  more  than  one  week  from  the  time 
the  petals  are  off  until  they  are  sprayed. 

A  good  power  outfit  for  spraying  will  do  to  take  care  of  twenty 
acres  of  apple  orchard  that  is  twelve  or  more  years  of  age.  It 
will  be  a  mistake  to  expect  it  to  do  much  more  than  this. 

Large  trees  require  from  six  to  ten  gallons  of  liquid  each  for 
a  thorough  first  spray.  If  the  average  is  eight  gallons  and  there 
2u 


370  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

are  eighty  trees  to  the  acre,  it  will  require  sixty-four  tanks  cf  two 
hundred  gallons  each  to  make  the  application. 

If  the  weather  is  warm,  some  varieties  will  close  their  calyxes 
within  six  days  from  the  time  the  petals  are  off,  and  the  little 
apples  that  close  their  calyxes  first  are  the  ones  most  likely  to 
set  and  make  fruit. 

When  making  the  first  spray,  the  grower  must  determine  upon 
one  thing,  if  he  is  to  get  anything  like  perfect  fruit,  and  that  is 
to  stay  with  each  tree  until  every  calyx  has  been  filled  with  the  spray. 
He  should  stop  occasionally  and  examine  the  blossoms  to  find 
out  whether  this  is  being  done. 

With  large  trees  always  have  a  tower  or  platform  above  the 
tank  where  two  men  may  stand  with  long  rods  to  spray  down- 
ward while  one  or  two  men  with  short  poles  upon  the  ground 
spray  upward  through  the  trees. 

A  pressure  of  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  fifty  pounds  is  suf- 
ficient to  do  good  work,  if  proper  nozzles  are  used. 

San  Jose*  Scale.     See  under  Plum. 

DISEASES    OF    THE    APRICOT 

Blight  (Bacillus  amylovorus).  — The  germs  of  pear -blight  occa- 
sionally attack  apricot  trees.  The  twigs  and  branches  are  killed, 
and  the  fruit  rotted  much  the  same  as  pear  or  apple  trees  are 
attacked. 

The  only  remedy  is  to  cut  out  and  burn  the  infected  parts. 
See  Pear. 

San  Jose  Scale.     See  under  Plum. 

INSECTS    OF    THE    CHERRY 

Pear-tree  Slug  (Eriocampoides  limacina).  —  While  the  slug  is 
primarily  a  pear-tree  insect,  it  is  more  common  on  cherry  trees. 
It  is  the  larva  of  a  fly,  slimy  in  appearance,  resembling  a  snail. 
It  feeds  on  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaves,  rapidly  skeletonizing 
them.  It  is  common  to  see  cherry  trees  denuded  of  foliage  by 
these  insects  in  midsummer.  This  results  in  serious  damage  to 
the  trees  ultimately,  but  there  is  no  excuse  for  such  injury  as  the 
slugs  are  easily  controlled. 


372  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

The  treatment  consists  in  spraying  with  white  hellebore  OT 
with  arsenate  of  lead.  Most  of  the  insects  may  also  be  killed  by 
simply  dusting  the  trees  thoroughly  with  air-slaked  lime,  wood 
ashes,  or  with  road  dust. 

San  Jose  Scale.     See  under  Plum. 

DISEASES   AND    INSECTS    OF   THE    PEACH 

Fungous  Diseases 

Crown-gall.     See  under  Apple. 

Mildew  (Podosphcera  oxyacanthce .)  —  This  is  the  only  disease 
for  which  our  orchardists  have  found  it  necessary  to  spray,  and 
that  in  only  comparatively  few  instances.  This  is  a  surface- 
growing  fungus,  and  in  its  early  stages  appears  as  white  frost-like 
patches  on  leaves,  twigs,  or  fruit.  The  leaves  on  new  growths  are 
most  susceptible  to  attack  and  are  often  much  crumpled  and 
dwarfed,  and  later  many  of  them  fall.  Thus  the  twigs  are  checked 
in  their  growth  or  killed  outright,  and  the  leaf  surface  reduced. 
It  attacks  the  fruits  when  they  are  young,  and  the  flesh  under  the 
spots  becomes  hard  and  the  skin  takes  on  a  brown  color.  The 
hardening  of  the  flesh  arrests  development  at  that  point,  and 
consequently  the  peaches  are  unmarketable.  Entire  crops  have 
been  ruined  in  this  way. 

Fortunately,  mildew  is  easily  controlled  by  spraying  with 
bordeaux  mixture,  preferably  in  early  spring  before  the  leaves 
are  out.  If  spraying  is  deferred  until  the  leaves  have  started, 
only  half  of  the  amount  of  copper  sulfate  may  be  used.  Bordeaux 
mixture  of  full  strength  is  usually  fatal  ,to  peach  foliage. 

Yellows.  —  The  true  peach-yellows  has  never  been  found  in 
this  region.  In  a  number  of  localities,  however,  peach  trees  have 
developed  yellow  foliage,  and  some  of  the  trees  have  died,  and 
thus  the  suspicion  has  been  aroused  in  some  quarters  that  this 
dread  disease  has  at  last  made  its  appearance  in  our  orchards. 

The  first  thing  one  notices  in  going  into  such  localities  is  that 
not  only  are  the  peach  trees  affected,  but  that  other  trees  present 
a  similar  appearance;  even  the  cottonwood  is  not  exempt.  But 
there  is  in  reality  little  similarity  between  this  condition  and  true 


Orchard  Pests  and  their  Control  373 

peach-yellows.  There  is  no  premature  ripening  of  fruit,  no  clusters 
of  small  branches,  and  the  trees  may  bear  yellow  foliage  for  a 
number  of  years  and  eventually  recover,  —  something  unheard 
of  with  peach-yellows,  where  death  is  swift  and  sure.  Instead 
we  find  pale  yellow  or  greenish  yellow  foliage,  stunted  growth, 
small  fruit,  bare  branches  with  small  clusters  or  rosettes  of  leaves 
at  the  end,  and  eventually  dead  branches  and  finally  dead  trees. 

In  all  localities  which  have  come  under  our  observation,  the 
affected  trees  occur  on  marly  land,  which  is  described  on  page  19 
It  is  true  that  many  orchards  of  vigorous  trees  may  be  found 
growing  in  this  kind  of  soil,  but  it  is  also  true  that  it  is  more  difficult 
to  keep  the  trees  in  good  condition.  In  many  of  these  orchards 
the  culture  has  not  been  suited  to  the  conditions,  consequently 
the  supply  of  available  plant-food  has  been  depleted,  and  the 
ground  has  become  so  compact  that  it  is  almost  impossible  for 
the  absorbing  roots  to  develop.  When  for  any  reason  the  soil 
conditions  become  uncongenial,  it  is  impossible  for  many  absorb- 
ing roots  to  form,  consequently  malnutrition  results.  The  tree 
responds  promptly,  and  the  yellow  foliage  is  the  signal  of  distress. 
The  importance  of  understanding  the  nature  of  plants  as  set 
forth  under  the  heading  of  "  The  Orchard  Plant "  (page  53) 
should  now  be  apparent  to  all.  Had  these  growers  fully  under- 
stood the  delicate  nature  of  their  trees,  much  of  this  loss  and 
worry  might  have  been  avoided. 

As  to  the  remedy,  it  should  be  understood  that  marly  land  is 
not  the  best  for  orchards,  but  it  has  been  made  to  grow  profit- 
able fruit  plantations.  As  has  been  intimated,  good  culture  must 
be  practiced;  when  yellow  foliage  appears,  the  grower  must 
change  and  improve  his  methods.  We  would  recommend  first 
that  the  ground  be  plowed  late  in  the  fall  to  a  depth  of  at  least 
six  inches,  and  deeper  if  practical.  In  the  spring  plant  some 
leguminous  crop,  as  red  clover.  Do  not  cut  any  of  the  crop  for 
hay,  but  return  it  all  to  the  soil.  Plow  this  material  under  in  the 
fall,  and  repeat  the  process  the  following  season.  It  may  be 
advisable  later  on  to  allow  the  crop  to  stand  for  two  seasons  before 
plowing,  but  this  must  be  determined  by  the  conditions.  In  all 
cases  the  irrigation  furrows  must  be  kept  open  so  that  the  water 


374  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

may  be  spread  without  overwatering  the  trees  closest  to  th? 
ditch.  Well-rotted  manure  may  be  used  in  place  of  the  green- 
manure,  but  in  most  orchard  districts  stable  manure  is  not  avail- 
able, and  for  various  reasons  it  is  not  so  well  adapted  to  the 
purpose  as  growing  plants. 

The  writers  have  seen  the  plan  as  above  outlined  carried  out 
in  several  orchards,  and  the  results  have  been  almost  phenomenal. 

Insect  Enemies  of  Peach 

Brown  Mite.     See  under  Apple. 

Peach  Twig-borer  (Anarsia  lineatella).  —  This  is  the  worst  in- 
sect enemy  of  the  peach  with  which  the  mountain  fruit-grower 
has  to  contend.  As  soon  as  the  buds  begin  to  open,  a  small, 
brownish  larva  with  a  black  head  eats  into  the  buds  and  destroys 
them.  When  the  new  shoots  start,  the  borer  eats  into  them, 
causing  them  to  wilt  and  die.  Many  of  the  second  brood  of  this 
borer  eat  into  the  peaches,  causing  a  gummy  exudation  and  ruin- 
ing them  for  market.  The  larvae  that  appear  in  the  spring  spent 
the  winter  in  little  excavations  which  they  made  in  the  fall  in  the 
bark  of  the  trees. 

The  treatment  for  the  twig-borer  consists  in  spraying  the  trees 
in  the  spring  just  before  the  buds  open.  The  lime-sulfur  mix- 
ture, or  whale-oil  soap  in  the  proportion  of  one  pound  to  two 
gallons  of  water,  or  arsenate  of  lead,  one  pound  to  20  gallons  of 
water,  may  be  used. 

We  are  not  accustomed  to  think  of  peach  trees  as  requiring 
systematic  spraying,  consequently  young  peach  trees  are  some- 
times neglected.  If  the  borers  get  a  start  in  the  spring  and  are 
not  checked,  the  second  brood  may  be  so  numerous  by  mid- 
summer as  to  seriously  injure  the  growth.  If  it  is  found  that 
these  insects  are  numerous  at  any  time  during  the  growing  season, 
a  thorough  spraying  with  arsenate  of  lead,  of  the  strength  recom- 
mended for  codlin-moth,  will  be  found  to  be  both  safe  and  effec- 
tive. 

Plant-lice.  —  The  plant-lice  that  attack  the  foliage  of  the 
peach  tree  may  be  treated  in  the  same  way  as  the  apple  plant- 


Orchard  Pests  and  their  Control  375 

louse.  The  black  cherry-louse  has  not  become  thoroughly  dis- 
tributed as  yet,  and  every  effort  should  be  made  to  exterminate 
it  as  soon  as  it  is  discovered. 

San  Jose"  Scale.     See  under  Plum. 

DISEASES   AND    INSECTS   OF  THE    PEAR 

Fungous  Diseases 

Blight  (Bacillus  amylovorus} .  —  This  disease  is  known  under  a 
variety  of  local  names  such  as  pear-blight,  fire-blight,  apple- 
blight,  and  sometimes,  according  to  the  parts  attacked,  as  twig- 
blight,  blossom-blight,  body-blight,  and  root-blight.  It  is  most 
destructive  in  its  attacks  on  the  pear,  but  is  also  very  injurious 
to  the  apple  and  the  quince.  It  also  attacks  the  apricot  and  plum 
on  occasion,  but  its  injuries  to  these  hosts  have  never  been  severe. 

This,  the  most  destructive  of  all  orchard  diseases,  has  been 
known  in  America  for  more  than  a  century,  and  it  is  scarcely 
necessary  to  observe  that  during  these  many  years  of  disastrous 
outbreaks,  nearly  every  conceivable  theory  as  to  the  cause  of  the 
disease  has  been  advanced.  These  notions  have  been  threshed 
over  and  over  as  new  localities  have  been  invaded  year  after 
year.  A  number  of  localities  in  this  region  are  now  having  their 
first  experience  with  blight,  and  a  few  are  still  exempt.  Con- 
sequently, these  many  theories  are  being  rediscovered  and  ad- 
vocated by  their  adherents.  One  of  the  more  recent  causes  to 
be  advanced  is  a  variation  of  the  frozen-sap  theory,  which  was 
first  advocated  by  A.  J.  Downing  in  his  "  Fruits  and  Fruit  Trees 
of  America,"  which  was  published  in  1845.  The  germ  theory  of 
the  cause  of  the  disease  was  first  advanced  by  Burrill  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Illinois  in  1878.  In  1880  he  made  a  more  complete 
report  of  his  work.  He  found  that  he  could  produce  blight  in 
healthy  apple  and  pear  trees  by  inoculating  with  diseased  tissue 
or  by  simply  pricking  a  healthy  limb  with  a  needle  which  had 
been  dipped  in  juice  from  diseased  bark.  Although  the  micro- 
organisms were  found  in  all  cases,  such  experiments  could  not  be 
accepted  as  positive  proof.  In  other  words,  was  it  the  germs  or 
was  it  the  "  poisonous  sap  "  which  caused  the  disease? 


376  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

The  work  of  Arthur  at  the  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station,  in  1884  and  1885,  should  settle  this  point  forever.  Dr. 
Arthur  made  cultures  of  blight  germs  in  a  liquid  medium,  which 
were  taken  from  blighted  trees.  These  were  pure  cultures  and 
were  carried  through  a  number  of  generations.  Blight  was  pro- 
duced in  trees  by  inoculating  with  the  last  culture.  But  to 
satisfy  those  who  might  still  say  that  the  injury  was  due  to  the 
liquid  and  not  to  the  germs,  inoculations  were  made  with  the 
liquid  from  which  the  germs  had  been  removed.  This  was  ac- 
complished by  filtering  through  earthenware  cells.  The  filtered 
liquid  was  found  to  be  entirely  free  from  germs,  and  all  inocula- 
tions with  it  failed  entirely  to  produce  results. 

These  experiments,  which  have  been  duplicated  by  many  ex- 
perimenters, prove  beyond  any  possible  doubt  that  this  specific 
micro-organism  is  the  cause  of  blight.  The  germs,  which  are  a 
low  form  of  vegetable  life,  feed  on  the  cambium  layer  of  the 
plant.  They  gain  entrance  only  through  wounds  in  the  bark  or 
through  very  tender  tissue,  such  as  is  found  in  the  nectaries  of 
flowers  and  possibly  through  the  small  openings  which  are  abun- 
dant in  leaves  and  in  the  green  bark  of  young  twigs. 

Where  do  these  germs  originate?  is  often  asked.  Because  they 
are  too  small  to  be  seen  with  the  unaided  eye  this  is  difficult  to 
understand.  They  should  be  regarded  simply  as  microscopic 
weeds  which  live  within  trees  instead  of  in  the  soil.  We  cannot 
always  satisfactorily  explain  where  weeds  come  from,  yet  they  are 
always  with  us.  Waite,  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  has 
demonstrated  that  the  germs  must  be  distributed  by  mechanical 
means,  and  that  insects  are  very  important  agents  in  spreading 
the  disease.  He  found  the  germs  developing  in  the  nectar  in  the 
blossoms  and  also  found  them  adhering  to  the  mouth  parts  of 
honey  bees  after  they  had  visited  infected  flowers.  Thus  it  will 
be  seen  that  after  one  blossom  has  been  infected,  the  disease  is 
spread  rapidly,  as  numerous  insects  of  various  kinds  visit  flower 
after  flower.  This  accounts  for  the  blighting  of  bearing  trees, 
while  those  which  for  some  reason  failed  to  bloom  may  be  entirely 
free. 

But  the  more  important  point  in  the  life  history  of  these  germg 


Orcfiard  Pests  and  their  Control  377 

is  their  mode  of  living  over  winter.  In  the  great  majority  of 
instances  the  organisms  die  as  the  tree  takes  on  its  dormant  con- 
dition. In  the  eastern  states  there  is  but  little  evidence  of  the 
disease  being  in  an  active  state  of  growth  after  the  middle  of  the 
growing  season,  for  the  reason  that  the  tissues  become  hardened. 
These  germs  thrive  best  in  rapidly  growing,  succulent  tissue. 
But  under  irrigation  trees  are  often  kept  growing  late  in  the 
season,  much  to  their  detriment,  so  that  blight  is  sometimes  found 
in  an  active  state  in  October.  A  definite  boundary  between  live 
and  dead  bark  is  an  indication  that  the  germs  are  dead,  and  this 
is  the  usual  appearance  of  blighted  limbs  at  the  close  of  the 
season.  But  a  few  blighted  areas  may  always  be  found  where 
this  separation  is  not  distinct,  and  it  is  in  these  that  the  germs 
live  over  winter.  The  following  spring  the  organisms  start  into 
growth  with  the  activity  of  the  tree,  and  a  thick  juice  is  exuded, 
which  runs  down  the  branch  or  trunk.  This  juice  contains  count- 
less numbers  of  the  germs  of  pear- blight,  and  it  is  from  such  cases 
of  "  hold-over  blight  "  that  many  new  infections  ultimately  arise. 
If  there  were  no  cases  of  hold-over  blight,  there  would  be  no 
source  of  infection,  and  the  disease  would  be  a  thing  of  the 
past. 

It  should  be  easy  to  understand,  with  these  facts  in  mind, 
that  no  spray  or  wash  that  might  be  applied  to  a  tree  would 
have  the  slightest  effect  in  controlling  blight.  But  now  that  the 
life  history  of  the  disease  is  known  some  preventive  measures  may 
be  taken  which  will  lessen  the  amount  of  damage. 

The  removal  of  all  hold-over  blight  in  the  fall  should  be  men- 
tioned as  of  first  importance.  The  trees  should  be  gone  over 
carefully  in  the  fall  and  again  in  spring,  and  all  blighted  limbs  cut 
out.  It  does  not  seem  to  be  possible  in  actual  practice  to  detect 
them  all,  but  much  good  may  be  accomplished  in  this  way.  Dis- 
eased branches  should  also  be  cut  out  during  the  summer  to  pre- 
vent further  injury  to  the  tree  as  well  as  to  reduce  sources  of 
infection.  Care  should  be  taken,  particularly  in  the  summer,  to 
make  the  cut  ten  or  twelve  inches  below  any  sign  of  discolored 
bark  or  wood,  so  that  no  germs  may  be  left.  And  as  a  further 
precaution  the  knife  or  saw  should  be  disinfected  after  each  limb 


378  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

is  removed  so  as  to  kill  any  germs  which  might  adhere  and  so 
prevent  any  possibility  of  spreading  the  disease  in  this  way.  A 
solution  of  alcohol,  or  of  corrosive  sublimate,  one  part  to  one 
thousand,  or  kerosene,  may  be  used  for  this  purpose.  Waite 
reports  that  he  has  reduced  blight  to  a  minimum  in  large  orchards 
by  carefully  following  this  plan. 

We  have  already  noticed  that  the  most  vigorous  trees  are  the 
most  subject  to  blight,  and  we  have  also  seen  that  as  soon  as  the 
tissues  become  hardened,  the  advance  of  the  disease  is  checked. 
Here,  then,  is  a  hint  to  induce  a  slow,  hard  growth  by  lessening 
the  food  supply.  Water  is  both  a  food  and  the  conveyor  of  food, 
so  by  regulating  the  water  supply  we  can  in  a  measure  control 
the  food  supply. 

One  of  Waite's  experiments  proves  this  so  completely  that  we 
will  be  pardoned  for  quoting  him  again.  Two  potted  pear  trees, 
both  in  active  growth,  were  inoculated  with  pear-blight.  After 
the  disease  had  made  good  progress  in  both  trees,  water  was  with- 
held from  one  of  them  during  a  period  of  two  weeks.  It  received 
just  enough  to  keep  the  leaves  from  wilting,  while  the  other  was 
given  the  normal  amount.  "  As  a  result,  the  blight  stopped  in 
the  dried-out  tree  as  soon  as  the  water  was  withheld  and  pro- 
gressed no  farther,  while  in  the  watered  tree  it  kept  on  until  it 
killed  the  whole  top." 

No  experiments  have  been  reported  which  prove  the  practica- 
bility of  withholding  water,  under  orchard  conditions,  as  a  means 
of  controlling  blight.  But  the  writer  had  an  opportunity  of 
studying  an  orchard  in  the  summer  of  1904  which  had  been 
without  water  for  two  and  one-half  years.  The  effect  of  this 
enforced  drought  on  checking  blight  was  very  marked,  and  it  also 
showed  that  pear  trees  can  exist  in  this  location  for  a  consider- 
able period  without  irrigation  or  cultivation.  These  results 
would  probably  Be  the  same  in. all  of  the  pear-growing  sections 
where  irrigation  is  practiced. 

The  orchard  referred  to  was  located  on  the  side  of  a  gradual 
slope.  All  other  farms  and  orchards  in  the  vicinity  lay  below, 
so  there  was  no  possibility  of  seepage  water  reaching  these  trees. 
The  ditch  which  supplied  the  orchard  with  water  broke  in  the 


Orchard  Pests  and  their  Control  379 

fall  of  1892,  and  as  money  was  not  available  to  make  the  neces- 
sary repairs,  the  orchards  had  been  abandoned.  At  the  time  of 
my  visit,  June  25,  1904,  many  of  the  trees  were  still  in  good  con- 
dition. This  was  especially  true  of  the  Winesap  apple.  The 
Jonathan  trees  were  still  in  condition  to  be  saved,  but  they  were 
less  vigorous  than  the  Winesaps.  Most  of  the  Ben  Davis  trees 
were  still  alive,  but  the  majority  of  them  had  put  forth  few  or  no 
leaves.  About  one-half  of  all  of  the  apple  trees  of  all  varieties 
were  dead,  as  well  as  most  of  the  peach  and  plum  trees. 

But  more  remarkable  was  the  appearance  of  a  block  of  eight- 
year-old  Bartlett  pear  trees.  Most  of  the  trees  were  still  in  a 
fairly  vigorous  condition,  some  of  the  twigs  of  the  previous  season's 
growth  measuring  14  inches  in  length.  The  average  of  the  cur- 
rent season's  growth  was  about  four  inches,  and  quite  a  little 
fruit  had  set  on  some  of  the  trees. 

The  inspector  had  visited  the  orchard  each  season,  and  he 
found  that  in  1892  blight  was  quite  abundant  in  the  pear  trees, 
and  some  of  them  died  from  its  attacks.  The  following  year 
there  was  still  a  good  deal  of  blight,  though  there  was  much  less 
damage  than  before.  At  the  time  of  my  visit,  June  25,  1904, 
there  were  but  few  twigs  in  which  the  disease  had  been  active 
that  season,  and  the  germs  were  apparently  dead.  The  dead 
bark  of  the  blighted  areas  was  surrounded  by  a  definite  bound- 
ary and  had  separated  from  the  living  bark. 

These  results  show  that  the  germs  of  blight  do  not  thrive  in 
slow-growing  trees,  and  in  fact  that  the  disease  may  be  eradicated 
by  prolonged  drought.  They  also  show  that  pear  trees  will  re- 
main in  good  condition  for  some  time  without  irrigation  or  culti- 
vation. But  just  how  far  this  could  be  carried  in  actual  practice 
remains  to  be  seen,  but  one  cannot  help  but  surmise  that  bearing 
pear  orchards  might  be  successfully  handled  with  very  little 
irrigation,  depending  upon  cultivation  or  the  lack  of  it  to  regu- 
late the  water  supply. 

The  form  of  trees  may  be  modified  so  as  to  lessen  the  injury 
by  blight.  For  this  reason  an  open-centered  tree  is  preferable, 
as  three  or  more  main  branches  take  the  place  of  one.  The  blight- 
ing of  the  leader  very  often  causes  the  death  of  the  two-storied 


380  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

tree,  whereas  with  three  or  more  scaffold  limbs,  one  may  be  re- 
moved without  serious  loss. 

Blight  usually  gains  entrance  to  the  trunk  and  larger  limbs 
through  short  fruit  spurs  and  watersprouts.  Such  growths 
should  not  be  allowed  to  form  on  the  lower  portions  of  the  scaffold 
limbs.  Longer  fruiting-wood  is  allowable,  but  a  departure  from 
the  rules  of  good  pruning  will  make  trees  less  liable  to  injury  by 
body  blight. 

No  doubt  all  growers  have  noticed  that  some  varieties  blight 
worse  than  others.  The  Bartlett  pear  is  in  this  class,  while  the 
Kieffer  is  perhaps  the  most  resistant.  Sweet  apples  and  the 
crabs  are  also  very  susceptible.  Experienced  growers  soon  recog- 
nized these  differences  and  have  selected  their  varieties  for  recent 
plantings  accordingly. 

Personally,  we  believe  that  the  pear-growing  industry  in  the 
West  is  doomed.  Even  in  the  few  sections  where  a  good  many 
acres  still  remain  the  disease  is  gradually  spreading,  and  from 
present  appearances  it  would  seem  that  in  a  comparatively  short 
time  these  orchards  will  be  worthless.  This  is  a  condition  greatly 
to  be  deplored,  as  the  pear  is  one  of  the  finest  fruits,  and  it  has 
been  a  very  profitable  one  to  grow.  But  there  is  the  consolation 
of  knowing  that  with  the  passing  of  the  pear  trees  a  constant 
source  of  infection  for  apple  trees  is  eliminated. 

Insect  Enemies  of  Pear 

Codlin-moth.     See  under  Apple. 
Green  Aphis.     See  under  Apple. 
Howard's  Scale.     See  under  Plum. 
Pear-slug.     See  under  Cherry. 
San  Jose  Scale.     See  under  Plum. 


DISEASES    AND    INSECTS    OF   THE    PLUM 

Fungous  Diseases 
Crown-gall.     See  under  Apple. 


Orchard  Pests  and  their  Control  381 

Insect  Enemies  of  Plum 

Brown  Mite.     See  under  Apple. 

Howard's  Scale  (Aspidiotus  howardi).  —  There  are  a  number 
of  forms  of  scale  insects,  none  of  the  females  of  which  have  the 
pov.-er  of  locomotion  in  the  adult  stage.  In  the  group  to  which 
Howard's  scale  belongs  the  insects  are  incased  in  hard  shells,  or 
scales,  about  one-sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  They  are 
light  to  dark  gray  in  color  except  that  the  raised,  central  point 
is  orange-red.  They  are  inconspicuous,  and  trees  are  often  badly 
infested  before  their  presence  is  discovered.  A  mass  of  eggs  is 
produced  under  the  scales  from  which  the  young  emerge  through- 
out the  summer.  These  tiny  insects  crawl  about  for  a  few  days, 
then  settle  down  and  remain  stationary  during  the  rest  of  their 
lives.  They  injure  trees  by  sucking  the  juices.  They  resemble 
closely  the  San  Jose  and  the  Putnam  scales,  and  one  is  often  mis- 
taken for  the  other.  Howard's  scale  is  sometimes  injurious, 
but  is  easily  controlled  by  applications  of  the  lime-sulfur  mixture 
during  winter  or  early  spring.  If  it  becomes  necessary  to  spray 
for  them  when  the  leaves  are  on,  whale-oil  soap  should  be  used. 

Pear-tree  Slug.     See  under  Cherry. 

Plant-lice.  —  Give  the  same  treatment  as  for  Green  Apple 
Aphis. 

San  Jose  Scale  (Aspidiotus  pemidosus}.  —  This  minute  insect 
is  perhaps  the  most  dreaded  pest  that  has  yet  appeared  in  the 
orchards  of  North  America.  So  severe  are  its  attacks  that  large 
trees  may  be  killed  in  from  one  to  three  years  after  being  infested. 

This  insect  resembles  closely  the  Howard  scale,  and  for  our 
purpose  the  description  of  one  will  answer  for  both,  as  only  an 
expert  can  determine  definitely  the  different  species.  It  should 
be  mentioned,  however,  that  the  San  Jose  scale  is  not  nearly  so 
particular  in  regard  to  its  food  plants,  as  it  thrives  almost  equally 
well  upon  the  various  members  of  the  rose  family,  to  which  most 
of  our  fruits,  both  large  and  small,  belong.  It  may  also  infest 
some  of  the  forest  trees  and  shrubs. 

Thus  far,  this  insect  has  not  been  particularly  troublesome  in 
this  region,  and,  in  fact,  it  has  never  been  found  in  some  of  the 


382  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

states.     We  hope  that  this  immunity  may  be  due  to  the  inability 
of  the  scale  to  thrive  in  the  higher  altitudes. 

The  remedy  for  San  Jose  scale  is  the  same  as  for  the  Howard 
scale. 

SPRAY   PUMPS   AND    SPRAYING 

Pumps  with  metal  valves  should  be  used  for  the  appli- 
cation of  insecticides  or  fungicides  in  liquid  form,  as  the 
materials  harden  or  decompose  leather  valves  so  that 
they  last  but  a  short  time.  If  bordeaux  mixture  is  to  be 
used,  all  parts  of  pumps  and  nozzles  that  come  in  contact 
with  the  mixture  must  be  made  of  brass,  as  the  chemicals 
very  soon  destroy  iron.  Wooden  tanks  must  take  the 
place  of  metal.  If  the  pump  is  to  be  used  with  a  tank  or 
barrel,  it  is  also  important  to  have  some  kind  of  attach- 
ment that  will  keep  the  liquid  agitated,  so  that  the  ma- 
terials in  suspension  will  not  settle.  A  common  error  is 
to  purchase  a  pump  of  too  small  capacity,  because  it  is 
cheaper.  A  smaller,  cheaper  pump  usually  means  less 
accomplished  in  a  day  with  the  same  help  and  a  poorer 
job,  with  a  greater  expenditure  of  labor.  It  is  often  im- 
portant to  complete  the  spraying  in  as  short  a  time  as 
possible  after  it  is  begun.  To  do  this,  a  pump  of  large 
capacity  with  two  or  more  leads  of  hose  is  necessary. 
The  hose  to  which  the  nozzles  are  attached  should  be  as 
light  as  possible  and  still  have  the  requisite  strength  —  a 
hose  of  good  quality  with  heavy  wall,  but  small  caliber. 
Bucket  pumps  are  sold  by  different  dealers  at  prices  rang- 
ing between  about  $2  and  $8.  They  are  suitable  for  use 
among  garden  vegetables,  shrubbery,  and  all  low  plants, 
but  should  not  be  purchased  for  orchard  work  if  one  has 
more  than  a  very  few  trees  to  treat. 


Orchard  Pests  and  their  Control  383 


FIG.  98.  —  Three-year-old  Elberta  Peach  Trees,   at  Farmington,   New 

Mexico. 


384  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

If  one  has  light  spraying  to  do  and  is  without  help, 
the  compressed-air  sprayers  are  very  convenient.  Large 
compressed-air  machines  that  derive  their  power  from 
gearing  attached  to  the  wagon  wheel  are  specially  adapted 
to  the  treatment  of  low  plants,  but  it  is  doubtful  whether 
any  spraying  machines  of  this  class  on  the  market  are 
well  adapted  to  the  spraying  of  large  orchard  trees  where 
the  wagon  must  stand  still  a  large  part  of  the  time  while 
the  spraying  is  going  on. 

When  large  orchards  are  to  be  sprayed,  it  is  a  matter 
of  necessity  and  economy  to  use  tanks  that  will  hold  200 
and  300  gallons,  and  pumps  of  large  capacity.  In  such 
orchards  gasoline  power  sprayers  are  most  useful  and  are 
becoming  more  and  more  common.  Heavier  engines  are 
now  being  used,  those  of  two  and  one-half  and  three 
horse  power  being  preferred.  They  are  more  stable  and 
give  less  trouble  than  lighter  ones. 

The  first  requisite  for  a  good  job  of  spraying  is  a  pump 
that  will  give  plenty  of  pressure  in  the  hose.  Then,  if 
one  has  a  good  spraying  nozzle  and  a  liquid  that  is  free 
from  solid  particles  of  a  size  to  clog  the  sprayer,  there 
will  be  no  difficulty  in  securing  a  good  spray. 

Barrels  and  tanks  should  always  be  filled  through  a 
strainer  to  avoid  loss  of  time  and  annoyance  through  the 
clogging  of  nozzles. 

A  very  fine  spray  is  most  economical  of  material  and 
for  an  even  and  thorough  distribution  is  best,  and  is 
specially  useful  for  the  destruction  of  caterpillars,  slugs, 
and  other  insects  that  devour  the  foliage  of  plants.  In 
spraying  the  first  time  for  the  codlin-moth,  however,  it  is 
recommended  that  the  spray  be  a  medium  coarse  one* 


Orchard  Pests  and  their  Control  385 

By  this  we  do  not  mean  that  the  spray  should  be  com- 
posed mostly  of  large  drops  produced  by  the  breaking  up 
of  a  solid  stream  thrown  forcibly  into  the  air,  or  that  it 
should  not  be  a  fine  mist  or  fog.  A  rather  coarse  ver- 
morel,  or  a  good  bordeaux  nozzle  with  a  pressure  of  100 
or  125  pounds,  will  furnish  such  a  spray.  When  spraying 
is  being  done  to  destroy  leaf -eating  insects,  care  should  be 
taken  not  to  spray  too  long  in  one  place,  as  this  will  result 
in  the  little  drops  that  collect  on  the  leaves  uniting  and 
running  off,  carrying  the  poison  with  them.  Here,  again, 
this  rule  does  not  apply  to  the  first  treatment  for  the 
codlin-moth.  In  that  application  there  should  be  but 
one  end  in  view,  and  that  to  fill  every  blossom-end  or 
calyx-cup  with  the  spray. 

Two  types  of  nozzles  are  used  almost  exclusively  for 
the  distribution  of  liquids.  Perhaps  the  most  popular 
are  the  bordeaux  and  the  clipper  nozzles,  which  throw  a 
flat  spray  or  a  solid  stream,  and  the  vermorel  nozzles 
which  throw  a  cone-shaped  spray  which  may  be  graded 
from  medium  coarse  to  extremely  fine,  depending  upon 
the  pressure  and  the  tip  that  is  used  upon  the  nozzle. 
It  is  a  big  advantage  in  nozzles  of  this  class  to  have  them 
joined  to  the  connecting  end  so  they  may  be  turned  at 
any  angle  to  the  rod  that  is  desired. 

Any  of  these  nozzles  may  be  used  singly  or  in  batteries 
of  two  or  more. 

FORMULAS 

Arsenate  of  Lead.  —  This  compound  contains  only  about  20 
to  25  per  cent  of  arsenious  acid,  but  has  some  important  ad- 
vantages over  the  other  arsenical  compounds.  It  is  so  slightly 
soluble  in  water  that  it  may  be  used  in  almost  any  strength  with- 
out injuring  foliage,  and  consequently  is  least  likely  to  injure 
2c 


386  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

plants  which  are  most  sensitive  to  arsenical  poisons.  When  sus- 
pended in  water,  this  poison  is  so  finely  divided  that  it  settles 
slowly,  and  consequently  can  be  more  evenly  distributed  than 
most  arsenical  mixtures.  Its  third  point  of  superiority  is  in  its 
adhesive  qualities  when  applied  to  foliage.  Applications  made 
to  foliage  in  the  latter  part  of  May  at  the  Colorado  Agricultural 
College  could  be  seen  upon  the  leaves  the  first  of  September. 
The  disadvantage  of  the  poison  is  its  not  being  quite  so  quick  to 
kill  the  insects  that  eat  it  as  are  the  other  arsenites,  consequently 
it  is  necessary  to  use  it  in  stronger  mixtures. 
The  formula  recommended  is  as  follows:  — 

Arsenate  of  lead 2  to  4  pounds 

Water 100  gallons 

A  stomach  poison  as  are  all  preparations  which  contain  arsenic. 

White  Hellebore.  —  Hellebore,  as  obtained  from  drug  stores,  is 
a  light,  yellowish  brown  powder.  It  is  a  vegetable  stomach 
poison  and  is  obtained  by  pulverizing  the  roots  of  an  European 
plant,  Veratrum  album.  It  is  not  as  poisonous  as  the  arsenites, 
and  consequently  it  is  not  as  effective  in  the  destruction  of  most 
insects,  but  it  has  its  special  uses.  Slugs,  which  are  the  young 
of  saw-flies,  are  particularly  susceptible  to  its  effects.  The  poison- 
ous property  is  an  alkaloid,  and  it  loses  its  virtue  after  being  ex- 
posed to  the  air  for  a  few  days.  For  this  reason  it  cannot  be 
used  where  it  is  likely  to  remain  long  before  being  eaten,  and  it 
must  be  kept  in  tight  receptacles  and  must  not  be  kept  too  long 
before  using.  It  is  often  useful  for  the  destruction  of  insects 
upon  plants  containing  fruit  which  will  soon  be  used  for  food. 

Dry  applications  are  easily  made  upon  low  plants  by  making 
a  small  cheesecloth  sack,  through  which  the  dust  may  be  sifted 
lightly  over  the  foliage.  The  best  time  to  apply  is  in  the  evening. 

In  the  wet  way  use:  — 

White  hellebore 1  ounce 

Water 3  gallons 

Apply  as  a  spray  in  the  evening. 


Orchard  Pests  and  their  Control  387 

Black-leaf  Sheep  Dip.  —  A  proprietary  decoction  of  tobacco 
which  has  recently  come  into  prominence  as  a  contact  poison  in 
combating  sucking  insects.  It  is  used  on  dormant  trees  as  strong 
as  one  gallon  to  25  gallons  of  water.  For  use  during  the  grow- 
ing season  one  gallon  of  Black  Leaf  to  70  gallons  of  water  is  com- 
monly used. 

This  preparation  is  being  generally  adopted  as  the  best  poison 
for  combating  the  different  forms  of  aphis. 

Whale-oil  or  Tree  Soap.  —  For  ordinary  plant  lice  one  pound 
of  the  soap  to  eight  or  ten  gallons  of  water  is  sufficient  if  the  ap- 
plication is  thorough.  Double  this  strength  will  not  injure  most 
plants  and  is  often  required  to  destroy  more  resistant  insects. 
For  scale  lice,  like  the  San  Jose  scale,  for  example,  it  is  used  as 
strong  as  one  pound,  or  even  two  pounds  to  a  gallon  of  water. 
These  strongest  applications  can  only  be  used  in  the  winter  or 
early  spring  when  the  trees  are  dormant.  The  soap  is  more 
effectual  if  applied  when  quite  hot.  The  soap  solutions  kill  by 
contact  only. 

Lime-sulfur  Wash.  —  This  wash,  when  properly  made,  is  one 
of  the  most  effectual  applications  for  the  destruction  of  scale  in- 
sects and  eggs  of  the  brown  mite  by  contact,  particularly  in  dry 
climates.  It  should  be  used  only  in  the  winter  or  spring,  while 
the  trees  are  dormant.  The  ingredients  may  be  in  the  following 
proportions :  — 

Lump  lime  (good) 20  pounds 

Sulfur 15  pounds 

Water 50  gallons 

Slake  the  lime,  preferably  with  hot  water,  in  an  iron  kettle  or 
a  barrel,  and  while  slaking,  slowly  add  the  sulfur  and  stir  it  in. 
Then  boil  over  a  good  fire  or  by  means  of  a  jet  of  steam  in  about 
one-half  the  required  amount  of  water  (25  gallons)  for  45  minutes 
or  until  a  dark  red  color  is  obtained. 

The  need  of  a  fungicide  to  replace  bordeaux  mixture  has  led 
to  experiments  with  various  sulfur  mixtures.  A  recent  bulletin 
of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  reports  favor- 


388  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

able  results  from  the  use  of  a  self-boiled  lime-sulfur  mixture.  It 
is  made  as  follows :  Place  15  pounds  of  fresh  stone  lime  in  a  50- 
gallon  barrel,  and  pour  two  or  three  gallons  of  cold  water  over  it. 
Immediately  add  the  sulfur  and  another  pail  of  water.  Stir  as 
necessary,  to  prevent  burning  and  add  more  water  if  the  mass 
gets  too  thick  to  stir;  but  as  little  water  as  possible  should  be 
used.  When  the  boiling  ceases,  dilute  with  water  to  make  50  gal- 
lons, stir  thoroughly,  strain,  and  the  mixture  is  ready  for  use. 

The  Rex  preparation  has  given  good  results  in  our  experiments 
in  controlling  grape  mildew,  so  that  there  is  no  doubt  but  that 
the  self-boiled  mixture  should  give  equally  as  good  and  perhaps 
better  results. 

Tobacco.  —  Tobacco  has  long  been  used  in  one  way  or  another 
for  the  destruction  of  insects.  Its  chief  use  seems  to  be  for  the 
destruction  of  lice.  When  slowly  burnt,  the  smoke  may  be  utilized 
for  the  destruction  of  lice  on  plants  in  greenhouses  or  window 
gardens.  In  the  form  of  a  fine  dust  it  is  often  effectual  in  ridding 
plants  of  flea-beetles,  and  in  the  form  of  dust  or  stems  is  one  of 
the  best  remedies  we  have  for  woolly  aphis  on  the  roots  of  apple 
trees. 

A  decoction  made  by  boiling  tobacco  dust  or  stems  in  water, 
in  the  proportion  of  a  pound  to  three  or  four  gallons,  is  destructive 
to  plant  lice  and  to  lice  upon  cattle.  Tobacco  very  finely  powdered 
may  also  be  used  in  the  dry  form  against  the  same  insects.  It  is 
best  to  first  spray  the  insects  with  water. 

Bordeaux  Mixture.  —  Formula  A. 

Copper  sulfate  (blue  stone  or  blue  vitriol)     ....  4  pounds 

Quick  lime 4  pounds 

Water 45  gallons 

Formula  B. 

Copper  sulfate 2  pounds 

Quick  lime 4  pounds 

Water 45  gallons 

Only  fresh  unslaked  lime  should  be  used.  It  should  be  slaked 
in  water  in  a  separate  vessel,  diluted  to  a  thin  whitewash,  and 


Orchard  Pests  and  their  Control  389 

strained  through  a  strainer  with  openings  the  size  of  a  pinhead. 
This  prevents  the  clogging  of  the  nozzles  with  any  of  the  coarse 
material  left  after  slaking.  The  copper  sulfate  should  be  dis- 
solved in  warm  water  if  wanted  for  immediate  use.  It  may  be 
dissolved  in  a  considerable  quantity  of  cold  water  by  suspending 
it  in  a  sack  just  beneath  the  surface.  If  to  be  used  in  large 
quantities,  it  is  well  to  make  up  a  stock  solution  by  dissolving 
fifty  pounds  in  twenty-five  gallons  of  water.  Keep  well  covered 
to  prevent  evaporation.  Two  gallons  of  this  solution  contain  the 
four  pounds  of  copper  sulfate  called  for  in  Formula  A,  or  one 
gallon  contains  the  two  pounds  called  for  in  Formula  B.  The  re- 
quired amount  of  this  solution  should  be  diluted  to  at  least  thirty 
gallons  before  the  lime  water  is  added.  The  lime  may  be  slaked 
in  large  quantities,  in  which  condition  it  will  keep  well  all  summer, 
and  the  amount  of  lime  water  or  paste  required  may  be  deter- 
mined by  a  chemical  test. 

For  this  test  potassium  ferrocyanide  may  be  secured  of  any 
druggist  and  prepared  for  use  by  dissolving  in  ten  times  its  bulk 
of  water.  A  quantity  of  lime  water  is  then  added  to  the  diluted 
copper  solution,  stirred  well,  and  a  drop  of  cyanide  dropped  upon 
the  surface.  If  it  gives  a  reddish  brown  color  to  the  mixture, 
more  lime  must  be  added  and  the  test  repeated  until  no  reaction 
occurs.  This  indicates  that  all  harmful  acids  of  the  copper 
have  been  neutralized,  and  the  mixture  is  ready  for  use.  Red 
litmus  paper  may  be  used  and  lime  added  until  the  solution  turns 
the  paper  to  a  blue  color. 

Bordeaux  mixture  is  used  in  combating  plant  diseases.  It 
has  no  effect  on  insects,  except  that  it  acts  as  a  repellent.  It 
has  been  used  successfully  in  this  way  in  ridding  potatoes  and 
other  vegetables  of  flea-beetles. 

Bordeaux  mixture  deteriorates  rapidly  and  should  be  used  as 
soon  as  prepared.  While  being  sprayed  it  requires  constant 
stirring.  In  the  preparation  of  the  mixture  no  metal  vessels  or 
tools  other  than  copper  or  brass  should  be  used.  Apply  to  apple 
and  to  pear  trees  only  on  bright  days,  otherwise  the  mixture  is 
likely  to  injure  both  fruit  and  foliage. 

Whitewash.  —  Whitewash  is  much  used  in  California  to  protect 


390  Fruit-growing  in  Arid  Regions 

trees,  both  young  and  old,  from  injury  by  sun-scald.     The  stubs 
made  in  grafting  are  also  protected  in  the  same  manner. 
The  California  formula  is  as  follows:  — 

Quicklime 30  pounds 

Tallow      , 4  pounds 

Salt        5  pounds 

Water enough  to  make  mixture  flow  well 

This  makes  a  tenacious  whitewash  not  easily  washed  off  by 
rains  or  removed  by  other  means. 

Grafting-waxes.  —  Several  formulas  are  given  for  the  prepara- 
tion of  grafting-waxes.  There  are  the  waxes  applied  warm  with 
a  brush  and  those  applied  cold,  the  heat  of  the  hands  being  suffi- 
cient to  make  them  pliable.  With  the  first  it  is  necessary  to  have 
special  equipment  to  keep  the  wax  melted  in  the  field,  and  this 
generally  limits  its  use  to  a  few  professional  grafters  who  are  pre- 
pared to  use  it.  The  cold  waxes  are  prepared  for  use  by  melting 
together  the  ingredients,  pouring  the  melted  material  in  cold 
water,  and  pulling  it  like  taffy  until  it  becomes  a  buff  color.  It 
can  be  kept  from  season  to  season  by  immersing  it  in  water. 
The  common  formula  given  for  the  preparation  of  this  wax  is 
four  pounds  of  resin,  two  pounds  of  beeswax,  and  one  pound  of 
tallow.  Paraffin  may  be  substituted  for  the  beeswax  in  this 
formula;  although  it  seems  that  the  resulting  wax  is  hardly  as 
durable,  it  serves  the  purpose  very  well.  By  increasing  the  amount 
of  resin  in  the  above  formula  to  six  pounds,  it  makes  a  very  good 
hard  wax  for  warm  application.  Another  good  wax  to  be  applied 
warm  is  prepared  by  melting  together  three  pounds  of  resin,  one 
pound  of  beeswax,  and  one  pint  of  raw  linseed  oil. 


INDEX 


Air  drainage,  14. 

Alfalfa,  influenced  by  fertility,  185 ; 
ways  of  killing,  35. 

Alkali,  black,  23;  drainage,  23; 
injury  due  to,  56;  kinds  of,  22; 
source  of,  22;  virgin  soil,  22; 
white,  23. 

Altitude,  early  bearing  in  relation 
to,  99;  effects  on  fruit  growing, 
13. 

Aphis,  see  Green  Aphis,  Woolly 
Aphis. 

Apple,  Arkansas,  231,  235;  Arkan- 
sas Black,  232,  235;  arsenical 
poisoning,  360,  369;  Ben  Davis, 
87,  226,  230,  235;  blight,  87,  359; 
crown  gall,  82,  359;  early  variety, 
234;  Esopus  (Spitzenberg) ,  232, 
235;  fruit  spur  of,  70;  grading, 
277;  Grimes,  229,  236;  hardy,  for 
high  altitude,  234;  aphis,  green, 
332;  aphis,  woolly,  364;  codling- 
moth,  368;  Jonathan,  226,  228, 
236;  pruning  of,  117;  Mclntosh, 
232,  236;  mildew,  360;  Missouri, 
44,  47,  229,  236;  Newtown  Pip- 
pin, 230,  238;  packing,  276;  pick- 
ing, 257;  pruning  of,  121;  Rails, 
232;  Rome,  44,  226,  229,  237; 
root  rot,  360;  varieties,  de- 
scription of,  235;  Wagner,  44; 
White  Pearmain,  232,  237;  Wine- 
sap,  229,  238;  pruning  of,  121; 
Winter  Banana,  232,  238;  Wrap- 
ping, 282,  308;  Yellow  Newtown, 
Pippin,  pruning  of,  123. 


Apricot,  blight,  370;  branch  bud, 
76;  fruit  bud,  76;  fruit  buds, 
character  of,  124;  packing,  283; 
picking,  260;  propagation,  178; 
pruning,  123;  varieties,  descrip- 
tion of,  239. 

Arkansas  Valley,  13. 

Arsenate  of  lead,  385. 

Arsenical  poisoning  of  trees,  360, 
369. 

Associations,  benefits  of,  303;  fruit 
growers',  302;  Grand  Junction, 
302;  Hood  River,  307;  state, 
315. 

Baby  beef  and.  fruit   growing,  214. 

Bailey,   L.   H.,   quoted,   86,  181. 

Black  leaf,  387. 

Blight,  359,  370;  see  also  Apple 
Blight,  Pear  Blight,  etc. 

Bordeaux  mixture,  388. 

Boxes,  275,  278. 

Branches,  ages  of,  66;  leaf  scars 
on,  67. 

Brown  mite,  367. 

Budding,    orchard    trees,    152. 

Buds,  apple,  69;  branch,  70;  fruit, 
see  Fruit  Bud;  scales,  66;  ter- 
minal, 68. 

Cambium,   59. 

Canon  breeze,  see  Frost. 

Capillary  water,   105. 

Carbon    dioxid,     action    of,     195; 

amount    required    by    trees,    64; 

strong  solvent,  195. 


391 


392 


Index 


Cherry,    adaptation,    239;     branch 

bud,  77;  fruit  buds,  77;  morello, 

242;  packing,  284;   picking,    260; 

propagation,      178;      slug,     370; 

varieties,  description  of,  241. 
Chlorophyll,  64. 
Cion  wood,  160. 
Climate:    see   also    Altitude,  Frost, 

Mountains;     effect     on     organic 

matter,  16. 
Codling-moth,  316. 
Color,  influence  of  soil  on,  228. 
Colorado,      horticultural      history, 

early,  6. 

Commercial  fertilizers,  188. 
Commission  men,  303. 
Cooperation,   necessity  of,   303. 
Core  rot  of  Jonathan,   252. 
Cover  crops,  190. 
Cross    fertilization,     planning    for, 

47. 
Crown  gall,  82,  359. 

Dairy  and  fruit  growing,  216. 
Decay,  process  of,  194. 
Drainage  and  alkali,   22. 
Dwarf  apples,  174. 
Dwarf  pears,  176. 

Fertility:  alfalfa,  effect  of,  on,  185; 
organic  matter  important,  183, 
190;  soil  exhaustion,  180,  187; 
soil  not  inexhaustible,  184. 

Fertilizers,  effects  on  potatoes,  189. 

Fillers,  46. 

Formulae,  385. 

Free  water,  205. 

French  crab  stock,  173. 

Frost,  blister,  326;  canon  breeze, 
effects  of,  14;  injuries  from,  325; 
injuries  to  bud,  326;  protection, 
334;  russet,  325;  second  crop 
bloom  caused  by,  330;  young 
fruit  injured  by,  328. 

Frost  fighting,  devices  for,  334; 
fuels  for,  340;  retarding  blooming 
period,  337;  smudging,  338. 


Fruit:  see  also  Names  of  various 
fruits;  factors  determining  quality 
of,  228;  keeping  qualities  in  high 
altitudes,  251;  small  farms  the 
rule,  11. 

Fruit  bud,  axillary  of  apple,  71; 
axillary  of  pear,  71;  terminal  of 
apple,  71;  terminal  of  pear,  71. 

Fruit  growers'  associations,  302; 
management,  309. 

Fruit  growing,  commercial,  recent, 
11. 

Fruit  spur,  apple,  68;  bearing 
habit,  71 ;  bearing  habit  may  be 
changed,  71;  formation  of,  93; 
intermittent  bearing  of,  73;  scar 
on,  70. 

Furrows,  character  of,  207. 

Giant  powder,  subsoil  loosened  by, 
34. 

Grafting,  cion  wood,  160;  methods, 
151;.  northern  spy  and  woolly 
aphis,  148;  old  trees,  150;  reasons 
for,  147;  seasons  for,  158;  stone 
fruits,  questionable,  148;  varieties 
to  avoid:  Duchess,  Hyslop,  Mis- 
souri, Wagner,  Wealthy,  150; 
young  trees,  165. 

Grafting  wax,  390. 

Grand    Junction   Association,    302. 

Greasewood  land,  17. 

Green,  W.  J.,  on  Ohio  fruit  culture, 
179. 

Green  aphis,  362. 

Green  manures,  benefits  of,  190. 

Gypsum,  rare,  19. 

Headden,  Wm.  P.,  quoted,  362. 
Hellebore,  386. 
Hoed  crops,  183. 
Hogs  and  fruit  growing,  218. 
Hood  River  Association,  270,  307. 
Horses  and  fruit  growing,  213. 
Horticultural  history,   early,   1. 
Howard  scale,  381. 
Humus,  194. 


Index 


393 


Insects,  biting,  357;  injurious,  see 
Orchard  Pests;  sucking,  358. 

Interplanting,   see  Fillers. 

Irrigation,  at  blooming  period,  203; 
length  of  time,  210;  methods, 
206;  time  of,  203. 

Irrigations,  number  of,  210. 

Jonathan,  core  rot  of,  252. 
Judson,  L.  B.,  quoted,  270. 

Keeping  qualities  of  fruit,  color  of, 
228;  superior  in  high  altitudes, 
251. 

Land,  leveling,  29;  raw,  30;  settling, 

30. 

Leaf  curl  of  peach,  355. 
Leaves,  chlorophyll,  64;  starch,  64; 

stomata,   62. 
Lime  and  sulfur  wash,  387. 

Manure,  see  Green  Manure,  Stable 

Manure. 

Marketing  fruit,  302. 
Marl,  common,  19;  effects  on  trees, 

19. 
Marly  soil,  orchards  on,  19;   rosette 

of  apple  on,  19;    shade  crops  on, 

19. 

Mildew,  see  Apple  Mildew. 
Moore,  J.,  quoted,  313, 
Mormons,  4. 
Mountains,  protection   afforded  by, 

13. 
Mountain  valleys,  fruit  growing  in, 

14. 

Night  breezes,  see  Frost. 

Nitrifying  bacteria,  cultures  of,  198. 

Nitrogen,  188. 

Northern  Spy  roots,  how  secured, 
174. 

Nursery  stock,  agent  for,  40; 
budded  trees,  38;  care  of,  40; 
first  class,  37;  French  crab- 
stock,  173;  peach,  June-budded, 


39 ;  June  buds  of,  39 ;  trees,  age 
of,  38,  90;  inspection  of,  83;  root- 
grafted,  38 ;  shriveled,  41 ;  yearling 
trees  best,  38,  89. 

Orchard  land,  plowing,  importance 
of,  199. 

Orchard  pests,  355;  apple  mildew, 
360;  brown  mite,  367;  codling- 
moth,  368;  crown  gall,  359; 
green  aphis,  362;  Howard  scale, 
381;  peach  leaf  curl,  355;  peach 
mildew,  372;  peach  twig  borer, 
374;  peach  yellows,  372;  pear 
blight,  375;  pear  tree  slug,  370; 
root  rots,  360;  San  Jos6  scale, 
381;  woolly  aphis,  364. 

Orchards,  commercial,  37;  crop- 
ping, the,  221 ;  growing  small  fruits 
in,  223;  irrigation  of  young, 
204. 

Organic  matter,  183,  195;  climatic 
effect  on,  16;  exhaustion  of, 
183;  lack  of,  in  soil,  16;  texture 
of  soil  improved  by,  16. 

Overproduction,   251. 

Packing   fruit,    267. 

Peach,  branch  buds,  74;  dehorning, 
132;  diseases  of,  317;  fruit  buds, 
74;  fruiting  wood  of,  130;  grad- 
ing by  machine,  289;  insects 
injurious  to,  374;  leaf  curl,  355; 
low-headed,  104;  mildew,  372; 
packing,  286;  propagation,  177; 
pruning,  102,  127;  illustrated, 
104;  soils  for,  242;  summer  prun- 
ing, 130;  twig  borer,  374;  varieties, 
description  of,  243;  winter  in- 
jury of,  131;  yellows,  372. 

Pear,  blight,  375;  to  avoid  blight, 
87;  insects  injurious  to,  380; 
propagation,  176;  pruning,  133; 
tree  slug,  381;  varieties,  descrip- 
tion of,  345. 

Phosphorus,  188. 

Picking  fruit,  250. 


394 


Index 


Plant  food,  elements  of,  187. 

Plants,   leguminous,    197. 

Plum,  propagation,  178;  San  Jose 
scale,  381;  varieties,  description 
of,  247. 

Potassium,  188. 

Potatoes,  alfalfa  sod  for,    189. 

Poultry  and  fruit  growing,  220. 

Propagation,  173. 

Pruning,  annual,  99;  apple  trees, 
88,  117;  apricot,  123;  balance 
between  roots  and  top,  81;  bear- 
ing habit  and,  113;  bearing  trees, 
111;  Ben  Davis,  87;  blight,  in- 
fluence of  pruning  on,  87;  buds, 
relation  to,  113;  cherry,  125; 
early  bearing  in  relation  to,  93; 
effects  on  fruit  spur,  71;  form, 
apple  tree  altered  by,  117;  Gano, 
87;  height  of  head,  84;  how  to 
cut  a  branch,  89,  113;  in  rela- 
tion to  buds,  113;  necessity  of, 
111;  neglected,  122;  open  cen- 
tered tree,  118;  peach,  young, 
102;  pear,  133;  pear  blight,  to 
avoid,  87;  physiology  of,  112; 
plum,  139;  pyramidal  form,  87; 
requirements  of  different  varieties, 
117;  scaffold  limbs,  88;  shy 
bearers,  123,  135;  summer,  125, 
130,  137;  summer  pruning  of 
pear,  137;  stub  cut,  89;  thinning 
fruit  by,  141;  tools,  115;  vase 
form,  87;  winter,  99,  113;  wounds, 
114. 

Quince,  bearing  habit,  138;  prun- 
ing, 138. 

Root  hairs,  54. 
Root  rots,  360. 
Roots,  53;  exposure  to  air,  51,82; 

pruning,  51,  82. 
Rosette,  cause  of,  19. 

Sage  brush  land,   17. 
San  Jose  scale,  381. 


Seepage,  due  to  clay,  21:  due  to 
excessive  irrigation,  22;  due  to 
shale,  21. 

Shade  crops,  184;   marly  soil  on,  18. 

Sieve  tubes,  59. 

Sinking  land,  20. 

Small  fruits,  marketing,  308. 

Smudging,  see  Frost  Fighting. 

Soil  surveys,  23. 

Soils,  adobe,  15;  alkali,  see  Alkali; 
cement,  20;  depth  of,  15,  19; 
influence  of  color  on,  196;  irri- 
gation of  varieties,  206;  marly, 
difficulty  of  growth  in,  19;  or- 
ganic matter,  lack  of,  16;  prepa- 
ration important,  28;  puddling 
of,  16;  sandstone,  15;  shallow, 
19;  shallow  rooted  trees  in,  19; 
solutions  in,  55;  surveys,  23; 
varieties  in,  15,  28;  volcanic  ash, 
17. 

Spraying,  apparatus,  382;  formulae, 
385. 

Stable  manure,  193. 

Stanger,  J.  S.,  quoted,  6. 

Starch,  64. 

Stems,  56. 

Stomata,  62. 

Stone,  W.  G.  M.,  1. 

Storage,  prompt,  important,  252. 

Subsoil,  importance  of,  18. 

Sun  scald,  84 ;  protection  of  grafted 
trees  from,  160. 

Survey,  see  Soil  Surveys. 

Tanglefoot  bands,  367. 

Thinning,  apples,  143;    fruit,    141; 

peaches,  145;    pears,  145. 
Tillage,  benefits  of,  181;    overdone, 

179;     winter     cultivation,     182; 

tilth,   182. 
Tobacco,  388. 
Top  working,  budding,  see  Budding; 

grafting,  see  Grafting  young  trees, 

165. 
Trees,    age    of,    38,   89;    bark,    59; 

carbon    dioxid  required,  64;    gir- 


Index 


395 


dling,  60;  heart  wood  inactive,  GO; 
heeling  in,  40;  injury  from  care- 
lessness, 82;  inspection  of  nurs- 
ery stock,  82;  low-headed,  84; 
pruning  when  transplanted,  81; 
root  pruning,  51,  82;  selection, 
37;  shallow-rooted,  15,  19;  water 
required,  63. 

Varieties,  see  also  Names  of  Fruits; 
adaptation  to  soil,  227;  early 
apple,  234;  for  local  market,  234; 
hardy  for  high  altitudes,  234; 


number  of,  37 ;  numbers  to  plant, 
234;    testing,   226. 

Water,   leveling  with,   31;    vessels, 

51. 

Webster,   Daniel,   speech,  2. 
Whale  oil  soap,   387. 
Whitewash,   389. 
Wind   breaks,   24;    importance   of, 

25;  location  of,  25:   trees  for,  26. 
Winter  killing  and  irrigation,  204. 
Woolly    aphis,    82,  364. 
Worthless  area,   2. 


Cyclopedia  of  American  Agriculture 

EDITED  BY  L.   H.   BAILEY 

Director  of  the  College  of  Agriculture  and  Professor  of  Rural  Economy 
r        Cornell  University. 

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